http://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=J632liu&feedformat=atomstatwiki - User contributions [US]2024-03-29T13:40:25ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.41.0http://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Speech2Face:_Learning_the_Face_Behind_a_Voice&diff=49653Speech2Face: Learning the Face Behind a Voice2020-12-07T02:38:39Z<p>J632liu: /* Discussion and Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Ian Cheung, Russell Parco, Scholar Sun, Jacky Yao, Daniel Zhang<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
This paper presents a deep neural network architecture called Speech2Face which utilizes millions of Internet/Youtube videos of people speaking to learn the correlation between a voice and the respective face. The model produces facial reconstruction images that capture specific physical attributes learning the correlations between faces and voices, such as a person's age, gender, or ethnicity, through a self-supervised procedure. Namely, the model utilizes the simultaneous occurrence of faces and speech in videos and does not need to model the attributes explicitly. This model explores what types of facial information could be extracted from speech without the constraints of predefined facial characterizations. Without any prior information or accurate classifiers, the reconstructions revealed correlations between craniofacial features and voice in addition to the correlation between dominant features (gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) and voice. The model is evaluated and numerically quantifies how closely the reconstruction, done by the Speech2Face model, resembles the true face images of the respective speakers.<br />
<br />
== Ethical Considerations ==<br />
<br />
The authors note that due to the potential sensitivity of facial information, they have chosen to explicitly state some ethical considerations. The first of which is privacy. The paper states that the method cannot recover the true identity of the face or produce faces of specific individuals, but rather will show average-looking faces. The paper also addresses that there are potential dataset biases that exist for the voice-face correlations, thus the faces may not accurately represent the intended population. Finally, it acknowledges that the model uses demographic categories that are defined by a commercial face attribute classifier.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work ==<br />
With visual and audio signals being so dominant and accessible in our daily life, there has been huge interest in how visual and audio perceptions interact with each other. Arandjelovic and Zisserman [1] leveraged the existing database of mp4 files to learn a generic audio representation to classify whether a video frame and an audio clip correspond to each other. These learned audio-visual representations have been used in a variety of setting, including cross-modal retrieval, sound source localization and sound source separation. This also paved the path for specifically studying the association between faces and voices of agents in the field of computer vision. In particular, cross-modal signals extracted from faces and voices have been proposed as a binary or multi-task classification task and there have been some promising results. Studies have been able to identify active speakers of a video, separate speech from multiple concurrent sources, predict lip motion from speech, and even learn the emotion of the agents based on their voices. Aytar et al. [6] proposed a student-teacher training procedure in which a well established visual recognition model was used to transfer the knowledge obtained in the visual modality to the sound modality, using unlabeled videos.<br />
<br />
Recently, various methods have been suggested to use various audio signals to reconstruct visual information, where the reconstructed subject is subjected to a priori. Notably, Duarte et al. [2] were able to synthesize the exact face images and expression of an agent from speech using a GAN model. A generative adversarial network (GAN) model is one that uses a generator to produce seemingly possible data for training and a discriminator that identifies if the training data is fabricated by the generator or if it is real [7]. This paper instead hopes to recover the dominant and generic facial structure from a speech.<br />
<br />
== Motivation ==<br />
It seems to be a common trait among humans to imagine what some people look like when we hear their voices before we have seen what they look like. There is a strong connection between speech and appearance, which is a direct result of the factors that affect speech, including age, gender, and facial bone structure. In addition, other voice-appearance correlations stem from the way we talk: language, accent, speed, pronunciations, etc. These properties of speech are often common among many different nationalities and cultures, which can, in turn, translate to common physical features among different voices. Namely, from an input audio segment of a person speaking, the method would reconstruct an image of the person’s face in a canonical form (frontal-facing, neutral expression). The goal was to study to what extent people can infer how someone else looks from the way they talk. Rather than predicting a recognizable image of the exact face, the authors are more interested in capturing the dominant facial features.<br />
<br />
== Model Architecture == <br />
<br />
'''Speech2Face model and training pipeline'''<br />
<br />
[[File:ModelFramework.jpg|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 1. '''Speech2Face model and training pipeline''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The Speech2Face Model consists of two parts - a voice encoder which takes in a spectrogram of speech as input and outputs low dimensional face features, and a face decoder which takes in face features as input and outputs a normalized image of a face (neutral expression, looking forward). Figure 1 gives a visual representation of the pipeline of the entire model, from video input to a recognizable face. The combination of the voice encoder and face decoder results are combined to form an image. The variability in facial expressions, head positions and lighting conditions of the face images creates a challenge to both the design and training of the Speech2Face model. It needs a model to figure out many irrelevant variations in the data, and to implicitly extract important internal representations of faces. To avoid this problem the model is trained to first regress to a low dimensional intermediate representation of the face. <br />
<br />
'''Face Decoder''' <br />
The face decoder itself was taken from previous work The VGG-Face model by Cole et al [3] (a face recognition model that is pretrained on a largescale face database [5] is used to extract a 4069-D face feature from the penultimate layer of the network.) and will not be explored in great detail here, but in essence the facenet model is combined with a single multilayer perceptron layer, the result of which is passed through a convolutional neural network to determine the texture of the image, and a multilayer perception to determine the landmark locations. The face decoder kept the VGG-Face model's dimension and weights. The weights were also trained separately and remained fixed during the voice encoder training. <br />
<br />
'''Voice Encoder Architecture''' <br />
<br />
[[File:VoiceEncoderArch.JPG|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 1: '''Voice encoder architecture''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The voice encoder itself is a convolutional neural network, which transforms the input spectrogram into pseudo face features. The exact architecture is given in Table 1. The model alternates between convolution, ReLU, batch normalization layers, and layers of max-pooling. In each max-pooling layer, pooling is only done along the temporal dimension of the data. This is to ensure that the frequency, an important factor in determining vocal characteristics such as tone, is preserved. In the final pooling layer, an average pooling is applied along the temporal dimension. This allows the model to aggregate information over time and allows the model to be used for input speeches of varying lengths. Two fully connected layers at the end are used to return a 4096-dimensional facial feature output.<br />
<br />
'''Training'''<br />
<br />
The AVSpeech dataset, a large-scale audio-visual dataset is used for the training. AVSpeech dataset is comprised of millions of video segments from Youtube with over 100,000 different people. The training data is composed of educational videos and does not provide an accurate representation of the global population, which will clearly affect the model. Also note that facial features that are irrelevant to speech, like hair color, may be predicted by the model. From each video, a 224x224 pixels image of the face was passed through the face decoder to compute a facial feature vector. Combined with a spectrogram of the audio, a training and test set of 1.7 and 0.15 million entries respectively were constructed.<br />
<br />
The voice encoder is trained in a self-supervised manner. A frame that contains the face is extracted from each video and then inputted to the VGG-Face model to extract the feature vector <math>v_f</math>, the 4096-dimensional facial feature vector given by the face decoder on a single frame from the input video. This provides the supervision signal for the voice-encoder. The feature <math>v_s</math>, the 4096 dimensional facial feature vector from the voice encoder, is trained to predict <math>v_f</math>.<br />
<br />
In order to train this model, a proper loss function must be defined. The L1 norm of the difference between <math>v_s</math> and <math>v_f</math>, given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math>, may seem like a suitable loss function, but in actuality results in unstable results and long training times. Figure 2, below, shows the difference in predicted facial features given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math> and the following loss. Based on the work of Castrejon et al. [4], a loss function is used which penalizes the differences in the last layer of the VGG-Face model <math>f_{VGG}</math>: <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{2622}</math> and the first layer of face decoder <math>f_{dec}</math> : <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{1000}</math>. The final loss function is given by: $$L_{total} = ||f_{dec}(v_f) - f_{dec}(v_s)|| + \lambda_1||\frac{v_f}{||v_f||} - \frac{v_s}{||v_s||}||^2_2 + \lambda_2 L_{distill}(f_{VGG}(v_f), f_{VGG}(v_s))$$<br />
This loss penalizes on both the normalized Euclidean distance between the 2 facial feature vectors and the knowledge distillation loss, which is given by: $$L_{distill}(a,b) = -\sum_ip_{(i)}(a)\text{log}p_{(i)}(b)$$ $$p_{(i)}(a) = \frac{\text{exp}(a_i/T)}{\sum_j \text{exp}(a_j/T)}$$ Knowledge distillation is used as an alternative to Cross-Entropy. By recommendation of Cole et al [3], <math> T = 2 </math> was used to ensure a smooth activation. <math>\lambda_1 = 0.025</math> and <math>\lambda_2 = 200</math> were chosen so that magnitude of the gradient of each term with respect to <math>v_s</math> are of similar scale at the <math>1000^{th}</math> iteration.<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:L1vsTotalLoss.png | 700px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 2: '''Qualitative results on the AVSpeech test set''' </div><br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
'''Confusion Matrix and Dataset statistics'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:Confusionmatrix.png| 600px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 3. '''Facial attribute evaluation''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In order to determine the similarity between the generated images and the ground truth, a commercial service known as Face++ which classifies faces for distinct attributes (such as gender, ethnicity, etc) was used. Figure 3 gives a confusion matrix based on gender, ethnicity, and age. By examining these matrices, it is seen that the Speech2Face model performs very well on gender, only misclassifying 6% of the time. Similarly, the model performs fairly well on ethnicities, especially with white or Asian faces. Although the model performs worse on black and Indian faces, that can be attributed to the vastly unbalanced data, where 50% of the data represented a white face, and 80% represented a white or Asian face. <br />
<br />
'''Feature Similarity'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:FeatSim.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 2. '''Feature similarity''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Another examination of the result is the similarity of features predicted by the Speech2Face model. The cosine, L1, and L2 distance between the facial feature vector produced by the model and the true facial feature vector from the face decoder were computed, and presented, above, in Table 2. A comparison of facial similarity was also done based on the length of audio input. From the table, it is evident that the 6-second audio produced a lower cosine, L1, and L2 distance, resulting in a facial feature vector that is closer to the ground truth. <br />
<br />
'''S2F -> Face retrieval performance'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File: Retrieval.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 3. '''S2F -> Face retrieval performance''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The performance of the model was also examined on how well it could produce the original image. The R@K metric, also known as retrieval performance by recall at K, measures the probability that the K closest images to the model output includes the correct image of the speaker's face. A higher R@K score indicates better performance. From Table 3, above, we see that both the 3-second and 6-second audio showed significant improvement over random chance, with the 6-second audio performing slightly better.<br />
<br />
'''Additional Observations''' <br />
<br />
Ablation studies were carried out to test the effect of audio duration and batch normalization. It was found that the duration of input audio during the training stage had little effect on convergence speed (comparing 3 and 6-second speech segments), while in the test stage longer input speech yields improvement in reconstruction quality. With respect to batch normalization (BN), it was found that without BN reconstructed faces would converge to an average face, while the inclusion of BN led to results which contained much richer facial features.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
The report presented a novel study of face reconstruction from audio recordings of a person speaking. The model was demonstrated to be able to predict plausible face reconstructions with similar facial features to real images of the person speaking. The problem was addressed by learning to align the feature space of speech to that of a pretrained face decoder. The model was trained on millions of videos of people speaking from YouTube. The model was then evaluated by comparing the reconstructed faces with a commercial facial detection service. The authors believe that facial reconstruction allows a more comprehensive view of voice-face correlation compared to predicting individual features, which may lead to new research opportunities and applications.<br />
<br />
== Discussion and Critiques ==<br />
<br />
There is evidence that the results of the model may be heavily influenced by external factors:<br />
<br />
1. Their method of sampling random YouTube videos resulted in an unbalanced sample in terms of ethnicity. Over half of the samples were white. We also saw a large bias in the model's prediction of ethnicity towards white. The bias in the results shows that the model may be overfitting the training data and puts into question what the performance of the model would be when trained and tested on a balanced dataset. Figure (11) highlights this shortcoming: The same man heard speaking in either English or Chinese was predicted to have a "white" appearance or an "asian" appearance respectively.<br />
<br />
2. The model was shown to infer different face features based on language. This puts into question how heavily the model depends on the spoken language. The paper mentioned the quality of face reconstruction may be affected by uncommon languages, where English is the most popular language on Youtube(training set). Testing a more controlled sample where all speech recording was of the same language may help address this concern to determine the model's reliance on spoken language.<br />
<br />
3. The evaluation of the result is also highly dependent on the Face++ classifiers. Since they compare the age, gender, and ethnicity by running the Face++ classifiers on the original images and the reconstructions to evaluate their model, the model that they create can only be as good as the one they are using to evaluate it. Therefore, any limitations of the Face++ classifier may become a limitation of Speech2Face and may result in a compounding effect on the miss-classification rate.<br />
<br />
4. Figure 4.b shows the AVSpeech dataset statistics. However, it doesn't show the statistics about speakers' ethnicity and the language of the video. If we train the model with a more comprehensive dataset that includes enough Asian/Indian English speakers and native language speakers will this increase the accuracy?<br />
<br />
5. One concern about the source of the training data, i.e. the Youtube videos, is that resolution varies a lot since the videos are randomly selected. That may be the reason why the proposed model performs badly on some certain features. For example, it is hard to tell the age when the resolution is bad because the wrinkles on the face are neglected.<br />
<br />
6. The topic of this project is very interesting, but I highly doubt this model will be practical in real-world problems. Because there are many factors to affect a person's sound in a real-world environment. Sounds such as phone clock, TV, car horn and so on. These sounds will decrease the accuracy of the predicted result of the model.<br />
<br />
7. A lot of information can be obtained from someone's voice, this can potentially be useful for detective work and crime scene investigation. In our world of increasing surveillance, public voice recording is quite common and we can reconstruct images of potential suspects based on their voice. In order for this to be achieved, the model has to be thoroughly trained and tested to avoid false positives as it could have a highly destructive outcome for a falsely convicted suspect.<br />
<br />
8. This is a very interesting topic, and this summary has a good structure for readers. Since this model uses Youtube to train model, but I think one problem is that most of the YouTubers are adult, and many additional reasons make this dataset highly unbalanced. What is more, some people may have a baby voice, this also could affect the performance of the model. But overall, this is a meaningful topic, it might help police to locate the suspects. So it might be interesting to apply this to the police.<br />
<br />
9. In addition, it seems very unlikely that any results coming from this model would ever be held in regard even remotely close to being admissible in court to identify a person of interest until the results are improved and the model can be shown to work in real-world applications. Otherwise, there seems to be very little use for such technology and it could have negative impacts on people if they were to be depicted in an unflattering way by the model based on their voice.<br />
<br />
10. Using voice as a factor of constructing the face is a good idea, but it seems like the data they have will have lots of noise and bias. The voice of a video might not come from the person in the video. There are so many YouTubers adjusting their voices before uploading their video and it's really hard to know whether they adjust their voice. Also, most YouTubers are adults so the model cannot have enough training samples about teenagers and kids.<br />
<br />
11. It would be interesting to see how the performance changes with different face encoding sizes (instead of just 4096-D) and also difference face models (encoder/decoders) to see if better performance can be achieved. Also given that the dataset used was unbalanced, was the dataset used to train the face model the same dataset? or was a different dataset used (the model was pretrained). This could affect the performance of the model as well.<br />
<br />
12. The audio input is transformed into a spectrogram before being used for training. They use STFT with a Hann window of 25 mm, a hop length of 10 ms, and 512 FFT frequency bands. They cite this method from a paper that focuses on speech separation, not speech classification. So, it would be interesting to see if there is a better way to do STFT, possibly with different hyperparameters (eg. different windowing, different number of bands), or if another type of transform (eg. wavelet transform) would have better results.<br />
<br />
13. A easy way to get somewhat balanced data is to duplicate the data that are fewer.<br />
<br />
14. This problem is interesting but is hard to generalize. This algorithm didn't account for other genders and mixed-race. In addition, the face recognition software Face++ introduces bias which can carry forward to Speech2Face algorithm. Face recognition algorithms are known to have higher error rates classifying darker-skinned individuals. Thus, it'll be tough to apply it to real-life scenarios like identifying suspects.<br />
<br />
15. This experiment raises a lot of ethical complications when it comes to possible applications in the real world. Even if this model was highly accurate, the implications of being able to discern a person's racial ethnicity, skin tone, etc. based solely on there voice could play in to inherent biases in the application user and this may end up being an issue that needs to be combatted in future research in this area. Another possible issue is that many people will change their intonation or vocal features based on the context (I'll likely have a different voice pattern in a job interview in terms of projection, intonation, etc. than if I was casually chatting/mumbling with a friend while playing video games for example).<br />
<br />
16. Overall a very interesting topic. I want to talk about the technical challenged raised by using the AVSSpeech dataset for training. The paper acknowledges that the AVSSpeech is unbalanced, and 80% of the data are white and Asians. It also says in the results section that "Our model does not perform on other races due to the imbalance in data". There does not seem to be any effort made in balancing the data. I think that there are definitely some data processing techniques that can be used (filtering, data augmentation, etc) to address the class imbalance problem. Not seeing any of these in the paper is a bit disappointing. Another issue I have noticed is that the model aims to predict an average-looking face from certain gender/racial group from voice input, due to ethical considerations. If we cannot reveal the identify of a person, why don't we predict the gender and race directly? Giving an average-looking face does not seem to be the most helpful.<br />
<br />
17. Very interesting research paper to be studied and the main objective was also interesting. This research leads to open question which can be applied to another application such as predicting person's face using voice and can be used in more advanced way. The only risk is how the data is obtained from YouTube where data is not consistent.<br />
<br />
18. The essay uses millions of natural videos of people speaking to find the correlation between face and voice. Since face and voice are commonly used as the identity of a person, there are many possible research opportunities and applications about improving voice and face unlock.<br />
<br />
19. It would be better to have a future work section to discuss the current shortage and explore the possible improvement and applications in the future.<br />
<br />
20. While the idea behind Speech2Face is interesting, ethnic profiling is a huge concern and it can further lead to racial discrimination, racism etc. Developers must put more care and thought into applying Speech2Face in tech before deploying the products.<br />
<br />
21. It would be helpful if the author could explore the different applications of this project in real life. Speech2face can be helpful during criminal investigation and essentially in scenarios when someone's picture is missing and only voice is available. It would also be helpful if the author could state the importance and need of such kind project in the society.<br />
<br />
22. The authors mention that they use the AVSpeech dataset for both training and testing but do not talk about how they split the data. It is possible that the same speakers were used in the training and testing data and so the model is able to recreate a face simply by matching the observed face to the observed audio. This would explain the striking example images shown in the paper.<br />
<br />
23. Another interesting application of this research is automated speech or facial animation at scale or in multiple languages. The cutting-edge automated facial animation solution provided by JALI Research Inc is applied in Cyberpunk 2077.<br />
<br />
24. It would be interesting to know the model can predict a similar face when one is speaking different languages. A person who is speaking multiple languages can have different tones and accents depending on a language that they speak.<br />
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25. The results are actually amazing for the introduction of Speech2Face. As others have mentioned, the researchers might have used a biased dataset of YouTube videos favoring certain ethnicities and their accents and dialects. Thus, it would be nice to also see the data distribution. Additionally it would be nice to see how their model reacts to people who are able to speak multiple languages and see how well Speech2Face generalizes different language pronunciations of one person.<br />
<br />
26. The paper introduces Speech2Face and it definitely is one of the major areas of researches in the future. In the paper, the confusion matrix indicates that the model tends to misclassify based on the age of the speaking person. Specifically, the model tends to misclassify between 40-70. It would be interesting to see if the model could improve on its bottleneck by training on more speeches by the age group 40-70.<br />
<br />
27. An interesting topic, and as others have mentioned, has many ethical considerations and implications. Particularly in regions where call-recording is permitted, there is dangerous potential to for the technology to be misused to identify and target individuals. It would also be interesting to get a more in depth exploration into how the language spoken and accents have a bias. For example, if a person speaks with a strong British accent, are they classified as white? Particularly for Spanish-speakers, they vary greatly with respect to their skin colour and features, how well does the algorithm work on these individuals. A last nit-pick is the labelling used (i.e. Asian, White, Indian, Black) as this is not accurate since Indians, and moreover South Asians, fall under Asian as well.<br />
<br />
28. This topic is quite interesting and it could have great contribution in terms of criminal fight. But as the result, the accuracy is essential. There is still the space for much improvements since to tell a person's face by his/her voice is pretty hard since there are many factors such as oral structure, the language environment and even personality. Great bias could be resulted from these unpredictable factors.<br />
<br />
29. This is an interesting topic and could have great use in terms of finding criminals or people when having their voice recorded. However, the voice recording might be noisy and some might include voices of multiple people. It could consider ways to eliminate those factors that might effect the accuracy of the face generation.<br />
<br />
30. Most contents described in the paper are very useful. However, YouTube might not be a good enough data source since there are fewer labels to classify. Perhaps, after generating the model, the transfer learning could be done based on Facebook's videos in order to solve the imbalanced problem.<br />
<br />
31. This topic is really incredibly interesting and the writers should commend themselves on a job well done. However, Youtube, not only is it an ethnically skewed dataset, but has a non-negligible number of creators who use voice modifiers, auto tune, or a number of other things to change the pitch of their voices, which may lead to the significantly more errors in practical applications. A better dataset to be used could be Skype video calls, or a class room study. Also, judging from the way the model does it's prediction, it seems very prone to overfitting on the dataset, and will not generalize well, since pitch and sound are both incredibly variable across humans.<br />
<br />
32. One thing to notice is that the training data used to train the model is downloaded from Youtube, which may be a good site to retrieve a large amount of data. While it allows the possibility that the voices retrieved does not match with the people who made those sounds, claimed by the video. If that is the case, those records will become dirty data, and needs to be cleaned before training the model. Otherwise, there will be some huge misclassifications because some of the training data is not making sense. One way I can think of to improve this problem is that we may train multiple models on different subsets of the original dataset, and combine the results of all the models by taking weighted average.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] R. Arandjelovic and A. Zisserman. Look, listen and learn. In<br />
IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV),<br />
2017.<br />
<br />
[2] A. Duarte, F. Roldan, M. Tubau, J. Escur, S. Pascual, A. Salvador, E. Mohedano, K. McGuinness, J. Torres, and X. Giroi-Nieto. Wav2Pix: speech-conditioned face generation using generative adversarial networks. In IEEE International<br />
Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing<br />
(ICASSP), 2019.<br />
<br />
[3] F. Cole, D. Belanger, D. Krishnan, A. Sarna, I. Mosseri, and W. T. Freeman. Synthesizing normalized faces from facial identity features. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2017.<br />
<br />
[4] L. Castrejon, Y. Aytar, C. Vondrick, H. Pirsiavash, and A. Torralba. Learning aligned cross-modal representations from weakly aligned data. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2016.<br />
<br />
[5] O. M. Parkhi, A. Vedaldi, and A. Zisserman. Deep face recognition. In British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC), 2015.<br />
<br />
[7] “Overview of GAN Structure | Generative Adversarial Networks,” ''Google Developers'', 24-May-2019. [Online]. Available: https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/gan/gan_structure. [Accessed: 02-Dec-2020].</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Speech2Face:_Learning_the_Face_Behind_a_Voice&diff=49650Speech2Face: Learning the Face Behind a Voice2020-12-07T02:29:12Z<p>J632liu: /* Model Architecture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Ian Cheung, Russell Parco, Scholar Sun, Jacky Yao, Daniel Zhang<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
This paper presents a deep neural network architecture called Speech2Face which utilizes millions of Internet/Youtube videos of people speaking to learn the correlation between a voice and the respective face. The model produces facial reconstruction images that capture specific physical attributes learning the correlations between faces and voices, such as a person's age, gender, or ethnicity, through a self-supervised procedure. Namely, the model utilizes the simultaneous occurrence of faces and speech in videos and does not need to model the attributes explicitly. This model explores what types of facial information could be extracted from speech without the constraints of predefined facial characterizations. Without any prior information or accurate classifiers, the reconstructions revealed correlations between craniofacial features and voice in addition to the correlation between dominant features (gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) and voice. The model is evaluated and numerically quantifies how closely the reconstruction, done by the Speech2Face model, resembles the true face images of the respective speakers.<br />
<br />
== Ethical Considerations ==<br />
<br />
The authors note that due to the potential sensitivity of facial information, they have chosen to explicitly state some ethical considerations. The first of which is privacy. The paper states that the method cannot recover the true identity of the face or produce faces of specific individuals, but rather will show average-looking faces. The paper also addresses that there are potential dataset biases that exist for the voice-face correlations, thus the faces may not accurately represent the intended population. Finally, it acknowledges that the model uses demographic categories that are defined by a commercial face attribute classifier.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work ==<br />
With visual and audio signals being so dominant and accessible in our daily life, there has been huge interest in how visual and audio perceptions interact with each other. Arandjelovic and Zisserman [1] leveraged the existing database of mp4 files to learn a generic audio representation to classify whether a video frame and an audio clip correspond to each other. These learned audio-visual representations have been used in a variety of setting, including cross-modal retrieval, sound source localization and sound source separation. This also paved the path for specifically studying the association between faces and voices of agents in the field of computer vision. In particular, cross-modal signals extracted from faces and voices have been proposed as a binary or multi-task classification task and there have been some promising results. Studies have been able to identify active speakers of a video, separate speech from multiple concurrent sources, predict lip motion from speech, and even learn the emotion of the agents based on their voices. Aytar et al. [6] proposed a student-teacher training procedure in which a well established visual recognition model was used to transfer the knowledge obtained in the visual modality to the sound modality, using unlabeled videos.<br />
<br />
Recently, various methods have been suggested to use various audio signals to reconstruct visual information, where the reconstructed subject is subjected to a priori. Notably, Duarte et al. [2] were able to synthesize the exact face images and expression of an agent from speech using a GAN model. A generative adversarial network (GAN) model is one that uses a generator to produce seemingly possible data for training and a discriminator that identifies if the training data is fabricated by the generator or if it is real [7]. This paper instead hopes to recover the dominant and generic facial structure from a speech.<br />
<br />
== Motivation ==<br />
It seems to be a common trait among humans to imagine what some people look like when we hear their voices before we have seen what they look like. There is a strong connection between speech and appearance, which is a direct result of the factors that affect speech, including age, gender, and facial bone structure. In addition, other voice-appearance correlations stem from the way we talk: language, accent, speed, pronunciations, etc. These properties of speech are often common among many different nationalities and cultures, which can, in turn, translate to common physical features among different voices. Namely, from an input audio segment of a person speaking, the method would reconstruct an image of the person’s face in a canonical form (frontal-facing, neutral expression). The goal was to study to what extent people can infer how someone else looks from the way they talk. Rather than predicting a recognizable image of the exact face, the authors are more interested in capturing the dominant facial features.<br />
<br />
== Model Architecture == <br />
<br />
'''Speech2Face model and training pipeline'''<br />
<br />
[[File:ModelFramework.jpg|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 1. '''Speech2Face model and training pipeline''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The Speech2Face Model consists of two parts - a voice encoder which takes in a spectrogram of speech as input and outputs low dimensional face features, and a face decoder which takes in face features as input and outputs a normalized image of a face (neutral expression, looking forward). Figure 1 gives a visual representation of the pipeline of the entire model, from video input to a recognizable face. The combination of the voice encoder and face decoder results are combined to form an image. The variability in facial expressions, head positions and lighting conditions of the face images creates a challenge to both the design and training of the Speech2Face model. It needs a model to figure out many irrelevant variations in the data, and to implicitly extract important internal representations of faces. To avoid this problem the model is trained to first regress to a low dimensional intermediate representation of the face. <br />
<br />
'''Face Decoder''' <br />
The face decoder itself was taken from previous work The VGG-Face model by Cole et al [3] (a face recognition model that is pretrained on a largescale face database [5] is used to extract a 4069-D face feature from the penultimate layer of the network.) and will not be explored in great detail here, but in essence the facenet model is combined with a single multilayer perceptron layer, the result of which is passed through a convolutional neural network to determine the texture of the image, and a multilayer perception to determine the landmark locations. The face decoder kept the VGG-Face model's dimension and weights. The weights were also trained separately and remained fixed during the voice encoder training. <br />
<br />
'''Voice Encoder Architecture''' <br />
<br />
[[File:VoiceEncoderArch.JPG|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 1: '''Voice encoder architecture''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The voice encoder itself is a convolutional neural network, which transforms the input spectrogram into pseudo face features. The exact architecture is given in Table 1. The model alternates between convolution, ReLU, batch normalization layers, and layers of max-pooling. In each max-pooling layer, pooling is only done along the temporal dimension of the data. This is to ensure that the frequency, an important factor in determining vocal characteristics such as tone, is preserved. In the final pooling layer, an average pooling is applied along the temporal dimension. This allows the model to aggregate information over time and allows the model to be used for input speeches of varying lengths. Two fully connected layers at the end are used to return a 4096-dimensional facial feature output.<br />
<br />
'''Training'''<br />
<br />
The AVSpeech dataset, a large-scale audio-visual dataset is used for the training. AVSpeech dataset is comprised of millions of video segments from Youtube with over 100,000 different people. The training data is composed of educational videos and does not provide an accurate representation of the global population, which will clearly affect the model. Also note that facial features that are irrelevant to speech, like hair color, may be predicted by the model. From each video, a 224x224 pixels image of the face was passed through the face decoder to compute a facial feature vector. Combined with a spectrogram of the audio, a training and test set of 1.7 and 0.15 million entries respectively were constructed.<br />
<br />
The voice encoder is trained in a self-supervised manner. A frame that contains the face is extracted from each video and then inputted to the VGG-Face model to extract the feature vector <math>v_f</math>, the 4096-dimensional facial feature vector given by the face decoder on a single frame from the input video. This provides the supervision signal for the voice-encoder. The feature <math>v_s</math>, the 4096 dimensional facial feature vector from the voice encoder, is trained to predict <math>v_f</math>.<br />
<br />
In order to train this model, a proper loss function must be defined. The L1 norm of the difference between <math>v_s</math> and <math>v_f</math>, given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math>, may seem like a suitable loss function, but in actuality results in unstable results and long training times. Figure 2, below, shows the difference in predicted facial features given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math> and the following loss. Based on the work of Castrejon et al. [4], a loss function is used which penalizes the differences in the last layer of the VGG-Face model <math>f_{VGG}</math>: <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{2622}</math> and the first layer of face decoder <math>f_{dec}</math> : <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{1000}</math>. The final loss function is given by: $$L_{total} = ||f_{dec}(v_f) - f_{dec}(v_s)|| + \lambda_1||\frac{v_f}{||v_f||} - \frac{v_s}{||v_s||}||^2_2 + \lambda_2 L_{distill}(f_{VGG}(v_f), f_{VGG}(v_s))$$<br />
This loss penalizes on both the normalized Euclidean distance between the 2 facial feature vectors and the knowledge distillation loss, which is given by: $$L_{distill}(a,b) = -\sum_ip_{(i)}(a)\text{log}p_{(i)}(b)$$ $$p_{(i)}(a) = \frac{\text{exp}(a_i/T)}{\sum_j \text{exp}(a_j/T)}$$ Knowledge distillation is used as an alternative to Cross-Entropy. By recommendation of Cole et al [3], <math> T = 2 </math> was used to ensure a smooth activation. <math>\lambda_1 = 0.025</math> and <math>\lambda_2 = 200</math> were chosen so that magnitude of the gradient of each term with respect to <math>v_s</math> are of similar scale at the <math>1000^{th}</math> iteration.<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:L1vsTotalLoss.png | 700px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 2: '''Qualitative results on the AVSpeech test set''' </div><br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
'''Confusion Matrix and Dataset statistics'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:Confusionmatrix.png| 600px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 3. '''Facial attribute evaluation''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In order to determine the similarity between the generated images and the ground truth, a commercial service known as Face++ which classifies faces for distinct attributes (such as gender, ethnicity, etc) was used. Figure 3 gives a confusion matrix based on gender, ethnicity, and age. By examining these matrices, it is seen that the Speech2Face model performs very well on gender, only misclassifying 6% of the time. Similarly, the model performs fairly well on ethnicities, especially with white or Asian faces. Although the model performs worse on black and Indian faces, that can be attributed to the vastly unbalanced data, where 50% of the data represented a white face, and 80% represented a white or Asian face. <br />
<br />
'''Feature Similarity'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:FeatSim.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 2. '''Feature similarity''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Another examination of the result is the similarity of features predicted by the Speech2Face model. The cosine, L1, and L2 distance between the facial feature vector produced by the model and the true facial feature vector from the face decoder were computed, and presented, above, in Table 2. A comparison of facial similarity was also done based on the length of audio input. From the table, it is evident that the 6-second audio produced a lower cosine, L1, and L2 distance, resulting in a facial feature vector that is closer to the ground truth. <br />
<br />
'''S2F -> Face retrieval performance'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File: Retrieval.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 3. '''S2F -> Face retrieval performance''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The performance of the model was also examined on how well it could produce the original image. The R@K metric, also known as retrieval performance by recall at K, measures the probability that the K closest images to the model output includes the correct image of the speaker's face. A higher R@K score indicates better performance. From Table 3, above, we see that both the 3-second and 6-second audio showed significant improvement over random chance, with the 6-second audio performing slightly better.<br />
<br />
'''Additional Observations''' <br />
<br />
Ablation studies were carried out to test the effect of audio duration and batch normalization. It was found that the duration of input audio during the training stage had little effect on convergence speed (comparing 3 and 6-second speech segments), while in the test stage longer input speech yields improvement in reconstruction quality. With respect to batch normalization (BN), it was found that without BN reconstructed faces would converge to an average face, while the inclusion of BN led to results which contained much richer facial features.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
The report presented a novel study of face reconstruction from audio recordings of a person speaking. The model was demonstrated to be able to predict plausible face reconstructions with similar facial features to real images of the person speaking. The problem was addressed by learning to align the feature space of speech to that of a pretrained face decoder. The model was trained on millions of videos of people speaking from YouTube. The model was then evaluated by comparing the reconstructed faces with a commercial facial detection service. The authors believe that facial reconstruction allows a more comprehensive view of voice-face correlation compared to predicting individual features, which may lead to new research opportunities and applications.<br />
<br />
== Discussion and Critiques ==<br />
<br />
There is evidence that the results of the model may be heavily influenced by external factors:<br />
<br />
1. Their method of sampling random YouTube videos resulted in an unbalanced sample in terms of ethnicity. Over half of the samples were white. We also saw a large bias in the model's prediction of ethnicity towards white. The bias in the results shows that the model may be overfitting the training data and puts into question what the performance of the model would be when trained and tested on a balanced dataset. Figure (11) highlights this shortcoming: The same man heard speaking in either English or Chinese was predicted to have a "white" appearance or an "asian" appearance respectively.<br />
<br />
2. The model was shown to infer different face features based on language. This puts into question how heavily the model depends on the spoken language. The paper mentioned the quality of face reconstruction may be affected by uncommon languages, where English is the most popular language on Youtube(training set). Testing a more controlled sample where all speech recording was of the same language may help address this concern to determine the model's reliance on spoken language.<br />
<br />
3. The evaluation of the result is also highly dependent on the Face++ classifiers. Since they compare the age, gender, and ethnicity by running the Face++ classifiers on the original images and the reconstructions to evaluate their model, the model that they create can only be as good as the one they are using to evaluate it. Therefore, any limitations of the Face++ classifier may become a limitation of Speech2Face and may result in a compounding effect on the miss-classification rate.<br />
<br />
4. Figure 4.b shows the AVSpeech dataset statistics. However, it doesn't show the statistics about speakers' ethnicity and the language of the video. If we train the model with a more comprehensive dataset that includes enough Asian/Indian English speakers and native language speakers will this increase the accuracy?<br />
<br />
5. One concern about the source of the training data, i.e. the Youtube videos, is that resolution varies a lot since the videos are randomly selected. That may be the reason why the proposed model performs badly on some certain features. For example, it is hard to tell the age when the resolution is bad because the wrinkles on the face are neglected.<br />
<br />
6. The topic of this project is very interesting, but I highly doubt this model will be practical in real-world problems. Because there are many factors to affect a person's sound in a real-world environment. Sounds such as phone clock, TV, car horn and so on. These sounds will decrease the accuracy of the predicted result of the model.<br />
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7. A lot of information can be obtained from someone's voice, this can potentially be useful for detective work and crime scene investigation. In our world of increasing surveillance, public voice recording is quite common and we can reconstruct images of potential suspects based on their voice. In order for this to be achieved, the model has to be thoroughly trained and tested to avoid false positives as it could have a highly destructive outcome for a falsely convicted suspect.<br />
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8. This is a very interesting topic, and this summary has a good structure for readers. Since this model uses Youtube to train model, but I think one problem is that most of the YouTubers are adult, and many additional reasons make this dataset highly unbalanced. What is more, some people may have a baby voice, this also could affect the performance of the model. But overall, this is a meaningful topic, it might help police to locate the suspects. So it might be interesting to apply this to the police.<br />
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9. In addition, it seems very unlikely that any results coming from this model would ever be held in regard even remotely close to being admissible in court to identify a person of interest until the results are improved and the model can be shown to work in real-world applications. Otherwise, there seems to be very little use for such technology and it could have negative impacts on people if they were to be depicted in an unflattering way by the model based on their voice.<br />
<br />
10. Using voice as a factor of constructing the face is a good idea, but it seems like the data they have will have lots of noise and bias. The voice of a video might not come from the person in the video. There are so many YouTubers adjusting their voices before uploading their video and it's really hard to know whether they adjust their voice. Also, most YouTubers are adults so the model cannot have enough training samples about teenagers and kids.<br />
<br />
11. It would be interesting to see how the performance changes with different face encoding sizes (instead of just 4096-D) and also difference face models (encoder/decoders) to see if better performance can be achieved. Also given that the dataset used was unbalanced, was the dataset used to train the face model the same dataset? or was a different dataset used (the model was pretrained). This could affect the performance of the model as well.<br />
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12. The audio input is transformed into a spectrogram before being used for training. They use STFT with a Hann window of 25 mm, a hop length of 10 ms, and 512 FFT frequency bands. They cite this method from a paper that focuses on speech separation, not speech classification. So, it would be interesting to see if there is a better way to do STFT, possibly with different hyperparameters (eg. different windowing, different number of bands), or if another type of transform (eg. wavelet transform) would have better results.<br />
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13. A easy way to get somewhat balanced data is to duplicate the data that are fewer.<br />
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14. This problem is interesting but is hard to generalize. This algorithm didn't account for other genders and mixed-race. In addition, the face recognition software Face++ introduces bias which can carry forward to Speech2Face algorithm. Face recognition algorithms are known to have higher error rates classifying darker-skinned individuals. Thus, it'll be tough to apply it to real-life scenarios like identifying suspects.<br />
<br />
15. This experiment raises a lot of ethical complications when it comes to possible applications in the real world. Even if this model was highly accurate, the implications of being able to discern a person's racial ethnicity, skin tone, etc. based solely on there voice could play in to inherent biases in the application user and this may end up being an issue that needs to be combatted in future research in this area. Another possible issue is that many people will change their intonation or vocal features based on the context (I'll likely have a different voice pattern in a job interview in terms of projection, intonation, etc. than if I was casually chatting/mumbling with a friend while playing video games for example).<br />
<br />
16. Overall a very interesting topic. I want to talk about the technical challenged raised by using the AVSSpeech dataset for training. The paper acknowledges that the AVSSpeech is unbalanced, and 80% of the data are white and Asians. It also says in the results section that "Our model does not perform on other races due to the imbalance in data". There does not seem to be any effort made in balancing the data. I think that there are definitely some data processing techniques that can be used (filtering, data augmentation, etc) to address the class imbalance problem. Not seeing any of these in the paper is a bit disappointing. Another issue I have noticed is that the model aims to predict an average-looking face from certain gender/racial group from voice input, due to ethical considerations. If we cannot reveal the identify of a person, why don't we predict the gender and race directly? Giving an average-looking face does not seem to be the most helpful.<br />
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17. Very interesting research paper to be studied and the main objective was also interesting. This research leads to open question which can be applied to another application such as predicting person's face using voice and can be used in more advanced way. The only risk is how the data is obtained from YouTube where data is not consistent.<br />
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18. The essay uses millions of natural videos of people speaking to find the correlation between face and voice. Since face and voice are commonly used as the identity of a person, there are many possible research opportunities and applications about improving voice and face unlock.<br />
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19. It would be better to have a future work section to discuss the current shortage and explore the possible improvement and applications in the future.<br />
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20. While the idea behind Speech2Face is interesting, ethnic profiling is a huge concern and it can further lead to racial discrimination, racism etc. Developers must put more care and thought into applying Speech2Face in tech before deploying the products.<br />
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21. It would be helpful if the author could explore the different applications of this project in real life. Speech2face can be helpful during criminal investigation and essentially in scenarios when someone's picture is missing and only voice is available. It would also be helpful if the author could state the importance and need of such kind project in the society.<br />
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22. The authors mention that they use the AVSpeech dataset for both training and testing but do not talk about how they split the data. It is possible that the same speakers were used in the training and testing data and so the model is able to recreate a face simply by matching the observed face to the observed audio. This would explain the striking example images shown in the paper.<br />
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23. Another interesting application of this research is automated speech or facial animation at scale or in multiple languages. The cutting-edge automated facial animation solution provided by JALI Research Inc is applied in Cyberpunk 2077.<br />
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24. It would be interesting to know the model can predict a similar face when one is speaking different languages. A person who is speaking multiple languages can have different tones and accents depending on a language that they speak.<br />
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25. The results are actually amazing for the introduction of Speech2Face. As others have mentioned, the researchers might have used a biased dataset of YouTube videos favoring certain ethnicities and their accents and dialects. Thus, it would be nice to also see the data distribution. Additionally it would be nice to see how their model reacts to people who are able to speak multiple languages and see how well Speech2Face generalizes different language pronunciations of one person.<br />
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26. The paper introduces Speech2Face and it definitely is one of the major areas of researches in the future. In the paper, the confusion matrix indicates that the model tends to misclassify based on the age of the speaking person. Specifically, the model tends to misclassify between 40-70. It would be interesting to see if the model could improve on its bottleneck by training on more speeches by the age group 40-70.<br />
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27. An interesting topic, and as others have mentioned, has many ethical considerations and implications. Particularly in regions where call-recording is permitted, there is dangerous potential to for the technology to be misused to identify and target individuals. It would also be interesting to get a more in depth exploration into how the language spoken and accents have a bias. For example, if a person speaks with a strong British accent, are they classified as white? Particularly for Spanish-speakers, they vary greatly with respect to their skin colour and features, how well does the algorithm work on these individuals. A last nit-pick is the labelling used (i.e. Asian, White, Indian, Black) as this is not accurate since Indians, and moreover South Asians, fall under Asian as well.<br />
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28. This topic is quite interesting and it could have great contribution in terms of criminal fight. But as the result, the accuracy is essential. There is still the space for much improvements since to tell a person's face by his/her voice is pretty hard since there are many factors such as oral structure, the language environment and even personality. Great bias could be resulted from these unpredictable factors.<br />
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29. This is an interesting topic and could have great use in terms of finding criminals or people when having their voice recorded. However, the voice recording might be noisy and some might include voices of multiple people. It could consider ways to eliminate those factors that might effect the accuracy of the face generation.<br />
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30. Most contents described in the paper are very useful. However, YouTube might not be a good enough data source since there are fewer labels to classify. Perhaps, after generating the model, the transfer learning could be done based on Facebook's videos in order to solve the imbalanced problem.<br />
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31. This topic is really incredibly interesting and the writers should commend themselves on a job well done. However, Youtube, not only is it an ethnically skewed dataset, but has a non-negligible number of creators who use voice modifiers, auto tune, or a number of other things to change the pitch of their voices, which may lead to the significantly more errors in practical applications. A better dataset to be used could be Skype video calls, or a class room study. Also, judging from the way the model does it's prediction, it seems very prone to overfitting on the dataset, and will not generalize well, since pitch and sound are both incredibly variable across humans.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] R. Arandjelovic and A. Zisserman. Look, listen and learn. In<br />
IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV),<br />
2017.<br />
<br />
[2] A. Duarte, F. Roldan, M. Tubau, J. Escur, S. Pascual, A. Salvador, E. Mohedano, K. McGuinness, J. Torres, and X. Giroi-Nieto. Wav2Pix: speech-conditioned face generation using generative adversarial networks. In IEEE International<br />
Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing<br />
(ICASSP), 2019.<br />
<br />
[3] F. Cole, D. Belanger, D. Krishnan, A. Sarna, I. Mosseri, and W. T. Freeman. Synthesizing normalized faces from facial identity features. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2017.<br />
<br />
[4] L. Castrejon, Y. Aytar, C. Vondrick, H. Pirsiavash, and A. Torralba. Learning aligned cross-modal representations from weakly aligned data. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2016.<br />
<br />
[5] O. M. Parkhi, A. Vedaldi, and A. Zisserman. Deep face recognition. In British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC), 2015.<br />
<br />
[7] “Overview of GAN Structure | Generative Adversarial Networks,” ''Google Developers'', 24-May-2019. [Online]. Available: https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/gan/gan_structure. [Accessed: 02-Dec-2020].</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Speech2Face:_Learning_the_Face_Behind_a_Voice&diff=49649Speech2Face: Learning the Face Behind a Voice2020-12-07T02:28:18Z<p>J632liu: /* Motivation */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Ian Cheung, Russell Parco, Scholar Sun, Jacky Yao, Daniel Zhang<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
This paper presents a deep neural network architecture called Speech2Face which utilizes millions of Internet/Youtube videos of people speaking to learn the correlation between a voice and the respective face. The model produces facial reconstruction images that capture specific physical attributes learning the correlations between faces and voices, such as a person's age, gender, or ethnicity, through a self-supervised procedure. Namely, the model utilizes the simultaneous occurrence of faces and speech in videos and does not need to model the attributes explicitly. This model explores what types of facial information could be extracted from speech without the constraints of predefined facial characterizations. Without any prior information or accurate classifiers, the reconstructions revealed correlations between craniofacial features and voice in addition to the correlation between dominant features (gender, age, ethnicity, etc.) and voice. The model is evaluated and numerically quantifies how closely the reconstruction, done by the Speech2Face model, resembles the true face images of the respective speakers.<br />
<br />
== Ethical Considerations ==<br />
<br />
The authors note that due to the potential sensitivity of facial information, they have chosen to explicitly state some ethical considerations. The first of which is privacy. The paper states that the method cannot recover the true identity of the face or produce faces of specific individuals, but rather will show average-looking faces. The paper also addresses that there are potential dataset biases that exist for the voice-face correlations, thus the faces may not accurately represent the intended population. Finally, it acknowledges that the model uses demographic categories that are defined by a commercial face attribute classifier.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work ==<br />
With visual and audio signals being so dominant and accessible in our daily life, there has been huge interest in how visual and audio perceptions interact with each other. Arandjelovic and Zisserman [1] leveraged the existing database of mp4 files to learn a generic audio representation to classify whether a video frame and an audio clip correspond to each other. These learned audio-visual representations have been used in a variety of setting, including cross-modal retrieval, sound source localization and sound source separation. This also paved the path for specifically studying the association between faces and voices of agents in the field of computer vision. In particular, cross-modal signals extracted from faces and voices have been proposed as a binary or multi-task classification task and there have been some promising results. Studies have been able to identify active speakers of a video, separate speech from multiple concurrent sources, predict lip motion from speech, and even learn the emotion of the agents based on their voices. Aytar et al. [6] proposed a student-teacher training procedure in which a well established visual recognition model was used to transfer the knowledge obtained in the visual modality to the sound modality, using unlabeled videos.<br />
<br />
Recently, various methods have been suggested to use various audio signals to reconstruct visual information, where the reconstructed subject is subjected to a priori. Notably, Duarte et al. [2] were able to synthesize the exact face images and expression of an agent from speech using a GAN model. A generative adversarial network (GAN) model is one that uses a generator to produce seemingly possible data for training and a discriminator that identifies if the training data is fabricated by the generator or if it is real [7]. This paper instead hopes to recover the dominant and generic facial structure from a speech.<br />
<br />
== Motivation ==<br />
It seems to be a common trait among humans to imagine what some people look like when we hear their voices before we have seen what they look like. There is a strong connection between speech and appearance, which is a direct result of the factors that affect speech, including age, gender, and facial bone structure. In addition, other voice-appearance correlations stem from the way we talk: language, accent, speed, pronunciations, etc. These properties of speech are often common among many different nationalities and cultures, which can, in turn, translate to common physical features among different voices. Namely, from an input audio segment of a person speaking, the method would reconstruct an image of the person’s face in a canonical form (frontal-facing, neutral expression). The goal was to study to what extent people can infer how someone else looks from the way they talk. Rather than predicting a recognizable image of the exact face, the authors are more interested in capturing the dominant facial features.<br />
<br />
== Model Architecture == <br />
<br />
'''Speech2Face model and training pipeline'''<br />
<br />
[[File:ModelFramework.jpg|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 1. '''Speech2Face model and training pipeline''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The Speech2Face Model used to achieve the desired result consists of two parts - a voice encoder which takes in a spectrogram of speech as input and outputs low dimensional face features, and a face decoder which takes in face features as input and outputs a normalized image of a face (neutral expression, looking forward). Figure 1 gives a visual representation of the pipeline of the entire model, from video input to a recognizable face. The combination of the voice encoder and face decoder results are combined to form an image. The variability in facial expressions, head positions and lighting conditions of the face images creates a challenge to both the design and training of the Speech2Face model. It needs a model to figure out many irrelevant variations in the data, and to implicitly extract important internal representations of faces. To avoid this problem the model is trained to first regress to a low dimensional intermediate representation of the face. <br />
<br />
'''Face Decoder''' <br />
The face decoder itself was taken from previous work The VGG-Face model by Cole et al [3] (a face recognition model that is pretrained on a largescale face database [5] is used to extract a 4069-D face feature from the penultimate layer of the network.) and will not be explored in great detail here, but in essence the facenet model is combined with a single multilayer perceptron layer, the result of which is passed through a convolutional neural network to determine the texture of the image, and a multilayer perception to determine the landmark locations. The face decoder kept the VGG-Face model's dimension and weights. The weights were also trained separately and remained fixed during the voice encoder training. <br />
<br />
'''Voice Encoder Architecture''' <br />
<br />
[[File:VoiceEncoderArch.JPG|center]]<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 1: '''Voice encoder architecture''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The voice encoder itself is a convolutional neural network, which transforms the input spectrogram into pseudo face features. The exact architecture is given in Table 1. The model alternates between convolution, ReLU, batch normalization layers, and layers of max-pooling. In each max-pooling layer, pooling is only done along the temporal dimension of the data. This is to ensure that the frequency, an important factor in determining vocal characteristics such as tone, is preserved. In the final pooling layer, an average pooling is applied along the temporal dimension. This allows the model to aggregate information over time and allows the model to be used for input speeches of varying lengths. Two fully connected layers at the end are used to return a 4096-dimensional facial feature output.<br />
<br />
'''Training'''<br />
<br />
The AVSpeech dataset, a large-scale audio-visual dataset is used for the training. AVSpeech dataset is comprised of millions of video segments from Youtube with over 100,000 different people. The training data is composed of educational videos and does not provide an accurate representation of the global population, which will clearly affect the model. Also note that facial features that are irrelevant to speech, like hair color, may be predicted by the model. From each video, a 224x224 pixels image of the face was passed through the face decoder to compute a facial feature vector. Combined with a spectrogram of the audio, a training and test set of 1.7 and 0.15 million entries respectively were constructed.<br />
<br />
The voice encoder is trained in a self-supervised manner. A frame that contains the face is extracted from each video and then inputted to the VGG-Face model to extract the feature vector <math>v_f</math>, the 4096-dimensional facial feature vector given by the face decoder on a single frame from the input video. This provides the supervision signal for the voice-encoder. The feature <math>v_s</math>, the 4096 dimensional facial feature vector from the voice encoder, is trained to predict <math>v_f</math>.<br />
<br />
In order to train this model, a proper loss function must be defined. The L1 norm of the difference between <math>v_s</math> and <math>v_f</math>, given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math>, may seem like a suitable loss function, but in actuality results in unstable results and long training times. Figure 2, below, shows the difference in predicted facial features given by <math>||v_f - v_s||_1</math> and the following loss. Based on the work of Castrejon et al. [4], a loss function is used which penalizes the differences in the last layer of the VGG-Face model <math>f_{VGG}</math>: <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{2622}</math> and the first layer of face decoder <math>f_{dec}</math> : <math> \mathbb{R}^{4096} \to \mathbb{R}^{1000}</math>. The final loss function is given by: $$L_{total} = ||f_{dec}(v_f) - f_{dec}(v_s)|| + \lambda_1||\frac{v_f}{||v_f||} - \frac{v_s}{||v_s||}||^2_2 + \lambda_2 L_{distill}(f_{VGG}(v_f), f_{VGG}(v_s))$$<br />
This loss penalizes on both the normalized Euclidean distance between the 2 facial feature vectors and the knowledge distillation loss, which is given by: $$L_{distill}(a,b) = -\sum_ip_{(i)}(a)\text{log}p_{(i)}(b)$$ $$p_{(i)}(a) = \frac{\text{exp}(a_i/T)}{\sum_j \text{exp}(a_j/T)}$$ Knowledge distillation is used as an alternative to Cross-Entropy. By recommendation of Cole et al [3], <math> T = 2 </math> was used to ensure a smooth activation. <math>\lambda_1 = 0.025</math> and <math>\lambda_2 = 200</math> were chosen so that magnitude of the gradient of each term with respect to <math>v_s</math> are of similar scale at the <math>1000^{th}</math> iteration.<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:L1vsTotalLoss.png | 700px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 2: '''Qualitative results on the AVSpeech test set''' </div><br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
<br />
'''Confusion Matrix and Dataset statistics'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:Confusionmatrix.png| 600px]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Figure 3. '''Facial attribute evaluation''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
In order to determine the similarity between the generated images and the ground truth, a commercial service known as Face++ which classifies faces for distinct attributes (such as gender, ethnicity, etc) was used. Figure 3 gives a confusion matrix based on gender, ethnicity, and age. By examining these matrices, it is seen that the Speech2Face model performs very well on gender, only misclassifying 6% of the time. Similarly, the model performs fairly well on ethnicities, especially with white or Asian faces. Although the model performs worse on black and Indian faces, that can be attributed to the vastly unbalanced data, where 50% of the data represented a white face, and 80% represented a white or Asian face. <br />
<br />
'''Feature Similarity'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File:FeatSim.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 2. '''Feature similarity''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Another examination of the result is the similarity of features predicted by the Speech2Face model. The cosine, L1, and L2 distance between the facial feature vector produced by the model and the true facial feature vector from the face decoder were computed, and presented, above, in Table 2. A comparison of facial similarity was also done based on the length of audio input. From the table, it is evident that the 6-second audio produced a lower cosine, L1, and L2 distance, resulting in a facial feature vector that is closer to the ground truth. <br />
<br />
'''S2F -> Face retrieval performance'''<br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[File: Retrieval.JPG]]<br />
</center><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align:center;"> Table 3. '''S2F -> Face retrieval performance''' </div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The performance of the model was also examined on how well it could produce the original image. The R@K metric, also known as retrieval performance by recall at K, measures the probability that the K closest images to the model output includes the correct image of the speaker's face. A higher R@K score indicates better performance. From Table 3, above, we see that both the 3-second and 6-second audio showed significant improvement over random chance, with the 6-second audio performing slightly better.<br />
<br />
'''Additional Observations''' <br />
<br />
Ablation studies were carried out to test the effect of audio duration and batch normalization. It was found that the duration of input audio during the training stage had little effect on convergence speed (comparing 3 and 6-second speech segments), while in the test stage longer input speech yields improvement in reconstruction quality. With respect to batch normalization (BN), it was found that without BN reconstructed faces would converge to an average face, while the inclusion of BN led to results which contained much richer facial features.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
The report presented a novel study of face reconstruction from audio recordings of a person speaking. The model was demonstrated to be able to predict plausible face reconstructions with similar facial features to real images of the person speaking. The problem was addressed by learning to align the feature space of speech to that of a pretrained face decoder. The model was trained on millions of videos of people speaking from YouTube. The model was then evaluated by comparing the reconstructed faces with a commercial facial detection service. The authors believe that facial reconstruction allows a more comprehensive view of voice-face correlation compared to predicting individual features, which may lead to new research opportunities and applications.<br />
<br />
== Discussion and Critiques ==<br />
<br />
There is evidence that the results of the model may be heavily influenced by external factors:<br />
<br />
1. Their method of sampling random YouTube videos resulted in an unbalanced sample in terms of ethnicity. Over half of the samples were white. We also saw a large bias in the model's prediction of ethnicity towards white. The bias in the results shows that the model may be overfitting the training data and puts into question what the performance of the model would be when trained and tested on a balanced dataset. Figure (11) highlights this shortcoming: The same man heard speaking in either English or Chinese was predicted to have a "white" appearance or an "asian" appearance respectively.<br />
<br />
2. The model was shown to infer different face features based on language. This puts into question how heavily the model depends on the spoken language. The paper mentioned the quality of face reconstruction may be affected by uncommon languages, where English is the most popular language on Youtube(training set). Testing a more controlled sample where all speech recording was of the same language may help address this concern to determine the model's reliance on spoken language.<br />
<br />
3. The evaluation of the result is also highly dependent on the Face++ classifiers. Since they compare the age, gender, and ethnicity by running the Face++ classifiers on the original images and the reconstructions to evaluate their model, the model that they create can only be as good as the one they are using to evaluate it. Therefore, any limitations of the Face++ classifier may become a limitation of Speech2Face and may result in a compounding effect on the miss-classification rate.<br />
<br />
4. Figure 4.b shows the AVSpeech dataset statistics. However, it doesn't show the statistics about speakers' ethnicity and the language of the video. If we train the model with a more comprehensive dataset that includes enough Asian/Indian English speakers and native language speakers will this increase the accuracy?<br />
<br />
5. One concern about the source of the training data, i.e. the Youtube videos, is that resolution varies a lot since the videos are randomly selected. That may be the reason why the proposed model performs badly on some certain features. For example, it is hard to tell the age when the resolution is bad because the wrinkles on the face are neglected.<br />
<br />
6. The topic of this project is very interesting, but I highly doubt this model will be practical in real-world problems. Because there are many factors to affect a person's sound in a real-world environment. Sounds such as phone clock, TV, car horn and so on. These sounds will decrease the accuracy of the predicted result of the model.<br />
<br />
7. A lot of information can be obtained from someone's voice, this can potentially be useful for detective work and crime scene investigation. In our world of increasing surveillance, public voice recording is quite common and we can reconstruct images of potential suspects based on their voice. In order for this to be achieved, the model has to be thoroughly trained and tested to avoid false positives as it could have a highly destructive outcome for a falsely convicted suspect.<br />
<br />
8. This is a very interesting topic, and this summary has a good structure for readers. Since this model uses Youtube to train model, but I think one problem is that most of the YouTubers are adult, and many additional reasons make this dataset highly unbalanced. What is more, some people may have a baby voice, this also could affect the performance of the model. But overall, this is a meaningful topic, it might help police to locate the suspects. So it might be interesting to apply this to the police.<br />
<br />
9. In addition, it seems very unlikely that any results coming from this model would ever be held in regard even remotely close to being admissible in court to identify a person of interest until the results are improved and the model can be shown to work in real-world applications. Otherwise, there seems to be very little use for such technology and it could have negative impacts on people if they were to be depicted in an unflattering way by the model based on their voice.<br />
<br />
10. Using voice as a factor of constructing the face is a good idea, but it seems like the data they have will have lots of noise and bias. The voice of a video might not come from the person in the video. There are so many YouTubers adjusting their voices before uploading their video and it's really hard to know whether they adjust their voice. Also, most YouTubers are adults so the model cannot have enough training samples about teenagers and kids.<br />
<br />
11. It would be interesting to see how the performance changes with different face encoding sizes (instead of just 4096-D) and also difference face models (encoder/decoders) to see if better performance can be achieved. Also given that the dataset used was unbalanced, was the dataset used to train the face model the same dataset? or was a different dataset used (the model was pretrained). This could affect the performance of the model as well.<br />
<br />
12. The audio input is transformed into a spectrogram before being used for training. They use STFT with a Hann window of 25 mm, a hop length of 10 ms, and 512 FFT frequency bands. They cite this method from a paper that focuses on speech separation, not speech classification. So, it would be interesting to see if there is a better way to do STFT, possibly with different hyperparameters (eg. different windowing, different number of bands), or if another type of transform (eg. wavelet transform) would have better results.<br />
<br />
13. A easy way to get somewhat balanced data is to duplicate the data that are fewer.<br />
<br />
14. This problem is interesting but is hard to generalize. This algorithm didn't account for other genders and mixed-race. In addition, the face recognition software Face++ introduces bias which can carry forward to Speech2Face algorithm. Face recognition algorithms are known to have higher error rates classifying darker-skinned individuals. Thus, it'll be tough to apply it to real-life scenarios like identifying suspects.<br />
<br />
15. This experiment raises a lot of ethical complications when it comes to possible applications in the real world. Even if this model was highly accurate, the implications of being able to discern a person's racial ethnicity, skin tone, etc. based solely on there voice could play in to inherent biases in the application user and this may end up being an issue that needs to be combatted in future research in this area. Another possible issue is that many people will change their intonation or vocal features based on the context (I'll likely have a different voice pattern in a job interview in terms of projection, intonation, etc. than if I was casually chatting/mumbling with a friend while playing video games for example).<br />
<br />
16. Overall a very interesting topic. I want to talk about the technical challenged raised by using the AVSSpeech dataset for training. The paper acknowledges that the AVSSpeech is unbalanced, and 80% of the data are white and Asians. It also says in the results section that "Our model does not perform on other races due to the imbalance in data". There does not seem to be any effort made in balancing the data. I think that there are definitely some data processing techniques that can be used (filtering, data augmentation, etc) to address the class imbalance problem. Not seeing any of these in the paper is a bit disappointing. Another issue I have noticed is that the model aims to predict an average-looking face from certain gender/racial group from voice input, due to ethical considerations. If we cannot reveal the identify of a person, why don't we predict the gender and race directly? Giving an average-looking face does not seem to be the most helpful.<br />
<br />
17. Very interesting research paper to be studied and the main objective was also interesting. This research leads to open question which can be applied to another application such as predicting person's face using voice and can be used in more advanced way. The only risk is how the data is obtained from YouTube where data is not consistent.<br />
<br />
18. The essay uses millions of natural videos of people speaking to find the correlation between face and voice. Since face and voice are commonly used as the identity of a person, there are many possible research opportunities and applications about improving voice and face unlock.<br />
<br />
19. It would be better to have a future work section to discuss the current shortage and explore the possible improvement and applications in the future.<br />
<br />
20. While the idea behind Speech2Face is interesting, ethnic profiling is a huge concern and it can further lead to racial discrimination, racism etc. Developers must put more care and thought into applying Speech2Face in tech before deploying the products.<br />
<br />
21. It would be helpful if the author could explore the different applications of this project in real life. Speech2face can be helpful during criminal investigation and essentially in scenarios when someone's picture is missing and only voice is available. It would also be helpful if the author could state the importance and need of such kind project in the society.<br />
<br />
22. The authors mention that they use the AVSpeech dataset for both training and testing but do not talk about how they split the data. It is possible that the same speakers were used in the training and testing data and so the model is able to recreate a face simply by matching the observed face to the observed audio. This would explain the striking example images shown in the paper.<br />
<br />
23. Another interesting application of this research is automated speech or facial animation at scale or in multiple languages. The cutting-edge automated facial animation solution provided by JALI Research Inc is applied in Cyberpunk 2077.<br />
<br />
24. It would be interesting to know the model can predict a similar face when one is speaking different languages. A person who is speaking multiple languages can have different tones and accents depending on a language that they speak.<br />
<br />
25. The results are actually amazing for the introduction of Speech2Face. As others have mentioned, the researchers might have used a biased dataset of YouTube videos favoring certain ethnicities and their accents and dialects. Thus, it would be nice to also see the data distribution. Additionally it would be nice to see how their model reacts to people who are able to speak multiple languages and see how well Speech2Face generalizes different language pronunciations of one person.<br />
<br />
26. The paper introduces Speech2Face and it definitely is one of the major areas of researches in the future. In the paper, the confusion matrix indicates that the model tends to misclassify based on the age of the speaking person. Specifically, the model tends to misclassify between 40-70. It would be interesting to see if the model could improve on its bottleneck by training on more speeches by the age group 40-70.<br />
<br />
27. An interesting topic, and as others have mentioned, has many ethical considerations and implications. Particularly in regions where call-recording is permitted, there is dangerous potential to for the technology to be misused to identify and target individuals. It would also be interesting to get a more in depth exploration into how the language spoken and accents have a bias. For example, if a person speaks with a strong British accent, are they classified as white? Particularly for Spanish-speakers, they vary greatly with respect to their skin colour and features, how well does the algorithm work on these individuals. A last nit-pick is the labelling used (i.e. Asian, White, Indian, Black) as this is not accurate since Indians, and moreover South Asians, fall under Asian as well.<br />
<br />
28. This topic is quite interesting and it could have great contribution in terms of criminal fight. But as the result, the accuracy is essential. There is still the space for much improvements since to tell a person's face by his/her voice is pretty hard since there are many factors such as oral structure, the language environment and even personality. Great bias could be resulted from these unpredictable factors.<br />
<br />
29. This is an interesting topic and could have great use in terms of finding criminals or people when having their voice recorded. However, the voice recording might be noisy and some might include voices of multiple people. It could consider ways to eliminate those factors that might effect the accuracy of the face generation.<br />
<br />
30. Most contents described in the paper are very useful. However, YouTube might not be a good enough data source since there are fewer labels to classify. Perhaps, after generating the model, the transfer learning could be done based on Facebook's videos in order to solve the imbalanced problem.<br />
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31. This topic is really incredibly interesting and the writers should commend themselves on a job well done. However, Youtube, not only is it an ethnically skewed dataset, but has a non-negligible number of creators who use voice modifiers, auto tune, or a number of other things to change the pitch of their voices, which may lead to the significantly more errors in practical applications. A better dataset to be used could be Skype video calls, or a class room study. Also, judging from the way the model does it's prediction, it seems very prone to overfitting on the dataset, and will not generalize well, since pitch and sound are both incredibly variable across humans.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] R. Arandjelovic and A. Zisserman. Look, listen and learn. In<br />
IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV),<br />
2017.<br />
<br />
[2] A. Duarte, F. Roldan, M. Tubau, J. Escur, S. Pascual, A. Salvador, E. Mohedano, K. McGuinness, J. Torres, and X. Giroi-Nieto. Wav2Pix: speech-conditioned face generation using generative adversarial networks. In IEEE International<br />
Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing<br />
(ICASSP), 2019.<br />
<br />
[3] F. Cole, D. Belanger, D. Krishnan, A. Sarna, I. Mosseri, and W. T. Freeman. Synthesizing normalized faces from facial identity features. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2017.<br />
<br />
[4] L. Castrejon, Y. Aytar, C. Vondrick, H. Pirsiavash, and A. Torralba. Learning aligned cross-modal representations from weakly aligned data. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), 2016.<br />
<br />
[5] O. M. Parkhi, A. Vedaldi, and A. Zisserman. Deep face recognition. In British Machine Vision Conference (BMVC), 2015.<br />
<br />
[7] “Overview of GAN Structure | Generative Adversarial Networks,” ''Google Developers'', 24-May-2019. [Online]. Available: https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/gan/gan_structure. [Accessed: 02-Dec-2020].</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Research_Papers_Classification_System&diff=49648Research Papers Classification System2020-12-07T02:24:17Z<p>J632liu: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Presented by =<br />
Jill Wang, Junyi (Jay) Yang, Yu Min (Chris) Wu, Chun Kit (Calvin) Li<br />
<br />
= Introduction =<br />
With the increasing advance of computer science and information technology, an increasingly overwhelming number of papers have been published. Due to the great volume, it has become incredibly hard to find and categorize papers. This paper introduces a paper classification system that utilizes the Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF), Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), and K-means clustering. The most important technology the system used to process big data is the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). The system can handle quantitatively complex research paper classification problems efficiently and accurately.<br />
<br />
===General Framework===<br />
<br />
The paper classification system classifies research papers based on the abstracts given that the core of most papers is presented in the abstracts. <br />
<br />
[[ File:Systemflow.png |right|image on right| 400px]]<br />
<ol><li>Paper Crawling <br />
<p>Collects abstracts from research papers published during a given period</p></li><br />
<li>Preprocessing<br />
<p> <ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>Removes stop words in the papers crawled, in which only nouns are extracted from the papers</li><br />
<li>generates a keyword dictionary, keeping only the top-N keywords with the highest frequencies</li> </ol><br />
</p></li> <br />
<li>Topic Modelling<br />
<p> Use the LDA to group the keywords into topics</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Paper Length Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the total number of occurrences of words to prevent an unbalanced TF values caused by the various length of abstracts using the map-reduce algorithm</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Word Frequency Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the Term Frequency (TF) values which represent the frequency of keywords in a research paper</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Document Frequency Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the Document Frequency (DF) values which represents the frequency of keywords in a collection of research papers. The higher the DF value, the lower the importance of a keyword.</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>TF-IDF calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the inverse of the DF which represents the importance of a keyword.</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Paper Classification<br />
<p> Classify papers by topics using the K-means clustering algorithm.</p><br />
</li><br />
</ol><br />
<br />
<br />
===Technologies===<br />
<br />
The HDFS with a Hadoop cluster composed of one master node, one sub-node, and four data nodes is what is used to process the massive paper data. Hadoop-2.6.5 version in Java is what is used to perform the TF-IDF calculation. Spark MLlib is what is used to perform the LDA. The Scikit-learn library is what is used to perform the K-means clustering.<br />
<br />
===HDFS===<br />
<br />
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) was used to process big data in this system. HFDS has been shown to process big data rapidly and stably with high scalability which makes it a perfect choice for this problem. What Hadoop does is to break a big collection of data into different partitions and pass each partition to one individual processor. Each processor will only have information about the partition of data it has received.<br />
<br />
'''In this summary, we are going to focus on introducing the main algorithms of what this system uses, namely LDA, TF-IDF, and K-Means.'''<br />
<br />
=Data Preprocessing=<br />
===Crawling of Abstract Data===<br />
<br />
Under the assumption that audiences tend to first read the abstract of a paper to gain an overall understanding of the material, it is reasonable to assume the abstract section includes “core words” that can be used to effectively classify a paper's subject.<br />
<br />
An abstract is crawled to have its stop words removed. Stop words are words that are usually ignored by search engines, such as “the”, “a”, and etc. Afterward, nouns are extracted, as a more condensed representation for efficient analysis.<br />
<br />
This is managed on HDFS. The TF-IDF value of each paper is calculated through map-reduce, an easy-to-use programming model and implementation for processing and generating large data sets. The user must specify (i) a map procedure, that filters and sorts the input data to produce a set of intermediate key/value pairs and (ii) a reduce function, which performs a summary operation on the intermediate values with the same key and returns a smaller set of output key/value pairs. The MapReduce interface enables this process by grouping the intermediate values with the same key and passing them as input to the reduce function. For example, one could count the number of times various words appear in a large number of documents by setting your map procedure to count the number of occurrences of each word in a single document, and your reduce function to sum all counts of a given word [[https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/1327452.1327492?casa_token=_Zg_DWxQzKEAAAAA:EHII0CaP36_ojGMT8huqTGLNMSEc-CKzZAoXBxSXe6pr2WB0DCQvEKa30CFQW0NSbB2-CVo8GcBcJAg 1]].<br />
<br />
===Managing Paper Data===<br />
<br />
To construct an effective keyword dictionary using abstract data and keywords data in all of the crawled papers, the authors categorized keywords with similar meanings using a single representative keyword. The approach is called stemming, which is common in cleaning data, where words are reduced to their word stem. An example is "running" and "ran" would be reduced to "run". 1394 keyword categories are extracted, which is still too much to compute. Hence, only the top 30 keyword categories are used.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_1_kswf.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
=Topic Modeling Using LDA=<br />
<br />
Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) is a generative probabilistic model that views documents as random mixtures over latent topics. Each topic is a distribution over words, and the goal is to extract these topics from documents.<br />
<br />
LDA estimates the topic-word distribution <math>P\left(t | z\right)</math> (probability of word "z" having topic "t") and the document-topic distribution <math>P\left(z | d\right)</math> (probability of finding word "z" within a given document "d") using Dirichlet priors for the distributions with a fixed number of topics. For each document, obtain a feature vector:<br />
<br />
\[F = \left( P\left(z_1 | d\right), P\left(z_2 | d\right), \cdots, P\left(z_k | d\right) \right)\]<br />
<br />
In the paper, authors extract topics from preprocessed paper to generate three kinds of topic sets, each with 10, 20, and 30 topics respectively. The following is a table of the 10 topic sets of highest frequency keywords.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_2_tswtebls.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
<br />
===LDA Intuition===<br />
<br />
LDA uses the Dirichlet priors of the Dirichlet distribution, which allows the algorithm to model a probability distribution ''over prior probability distributions of words and topics''. The following picture illustrates 2-simplex Dirichlet distributions with different alpha values, one for each corner of the triangles. <br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:dirichlet_dist.png|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Simplex is a generalization of the notion of a triangle in k-1 dimension where k is the number of classes. For example, if you wish to classify essays into three groups, English, History and Math then the simplex would be a 2 dimension triangle, if you add philosophy as one of your potential class, then we would need a tetrahedron in 3 deminsion. In Dirichlet distribution, each parameter will be represented by a corner in simplex, so adding additional parameters implies increasing the dimensions of simplex. As illustrated, when alphas are smaller than 1 the distribution is dense at the corners. When the alphas are greater than 1 the distribution is dense at the centers.<br />
<br />
The following illustration shows an example LDA with 3 topics, 4 words and 7 documents.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:LDA_example.png|800px]]</div><br />
<br />
In the left diagram, there are three topics, hence it is a 2-simplex. In the right diagram there are four words, hence it is a 3-simplex. LDA essentially adjusts parameters in Dirichlet distributions and multinomial distributions (represented by the points), such that, in the left diagram, all the yellow points representing documents and, in the right diagram, all the points representing topics, are as close to a corner as possible. In other words, LDA finds topics for documents and also finds words for topics. At the end topic-word distribution <math>P\left(t | z\right)</math> and the document-topic distribution <math>P\left(z | d\right)</math> are produced.<br />
<br />
=Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) Calculation=<br />
<br />
TF-IDF is widely used to evaluate the importance of a set of words in the fields of information retrieval and text mining. It is a combination of term frequency (TF) and inverse document frequency (IDF). The idea behind this combination is<br />
* It evaluates the importance of a word within a document<br />
* It evaluates the importance of the word among the collection of all documents<br />
<br />
The inverse of the document frequency accounts for the fact that term frequency will naturally increase as document frequency increases. Thus IDF is needed to counteract a word's TF to give an accurate representation of a word's importance.<br />
<br />
The TF-IDF formula has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[TF-IDF_{i,j} = TF_{i,j} \times IDF_{i}\]<br />
<br />
where i stands for the <math>i^{th}</math> word and j stands for the <math>j^{th}</math> document.<br />
<br />
===Term Frequency (TF)===<br />
<br />
TF evaluates the percentage of a given word in a document. Thus, TF value indicates the importance of a word. The TF has a positive relation with the importance.<br />
<br />
In this paper, we only calculate TF for words in the keyword dictionary obtained. For a given keyword i, <math>TF_{i,j}</math> is the number of times word i appears in document j divided by the total number of words in document j.<br />
<br />
The formula for TF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[TF_{i,j} = \frac{n_{i,j} }{\sum_k n_{k,j} }\]<br />
<br />
where i stands for the <math>i^{th}</math> word, j stands for the <math>j^{th}</math> document, <math>n_{i,j}</math> stands for the number of times words <math>t_i</math> appear in document <math>d_j</math> and <math>\sum_k n_{k,j} </math> stands for total number of occurence of words in document <math>d_j</math>.<br />
<br />
Note that the denominator is the total number of words remaining in document j after crawling.<br />
<br />
===Document Frequency (DF)===<br />
<br />
DF evaluates the percentage of documents that contain a given word over the entire collection of documents. Thus, the higher DF value is, the less important the word is.<br />
<br />
<math>DF_{i}</math> is the number of documents in the collection with word i divided by the total number of documents in the collection. The formula for DF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[DF_{i} = \frac{|d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0|}{|D|}\]<br />
<br />
where <math>n_{i,k}</math> is the number of times word i appears in document k, |D| is the total number of documents in the collection.<br />
<br />
Since DF and the importance of the word have an inverse relation, we use inverse document frequency (IDF) instead of DF.<br />
<br />
===Inverse Document Frequency (IDF)===<br />
<br />
In this paper, IDF is calculated in a log scale. Since we will receive a large number of documents, i.e, we will have a large |D|<br />
<br />
The formula for IDF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[IDF_{i} = log\left(\frac{|D|}{|\{d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0\}|}\right)\]<br />
<br />
As mentioned before, we will use HDFS. The actual formula applied is:<br />
<br />
\[IDF_{i} = log\left(\frac{|D|+1}{|\{d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0\}|+1}\right)\]<br />
<br />
The inverse document frequency gives a measure of how rare a certain term is in a given document corpus.<br />
<br />
=Paper Classification Using K-means Clustering=<br />
<br />
The K-means clustering is an unsupervised classification algorithm that groups similar data into the same class. It is an efficient and simple method that can be applied to different types of data attributes. It is also flexible enough to handle various kinds of noise and outliers.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
Given a set of <math>d</math> by <math>n</math> dataset <math>\mathbf{X} = \left[ \mathbf{x}_1 \cdots \mathbf{x}_n \right]</math>, the algorithm will assign each <math>\mathbf{x}_j</math> into <math>k</math> different clusters based on the characteristics of <math>\mathbf{x}_j</math> itself.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
Moreover, when assigning data into a cluster, the algorithm will also try to minimise the distances between the data and the centre of the cluster which the data belongs to. That is, k-means clustering will minimize the sum of square error:<br />
<br />
\begin{align*}<br />
min \sum_{i=1}^{k} \sum_{j \in C_i} ||x_j - \mu_i||^2<br />
\end{align*}<br />
<br />
where<br />
<ul><br />
<li><math>k</math>: the number of clusters</li><br />
<li><math>C_i</math>: the <math>i^th</math> cluster</li><br />
<li><math>x_j</math>: the <math>j^th</math> data in the <math>C_i</math></li><br />
<li><math>mu_i</math>: the centroid of <math>C_i</math></li><br />
<li><math>||x_j - \mu_i||^2</math>: the Euclidean distance between <math>x_j</math> and <math>\mu_i</math></li><br />
</ul><br />
<br><br />
<br />
K-means Clustering algorithm, an unsupervised algorithm, is chosen because of its advantages to deal with different types of attributes, to run with minimal requirement of domain knowledge, to deal with noise and outliers, to realize clusters with similarities. <br />
<br />
<br />
Since the goal for this paper is to classify research papers and group papers with similar topics based on keywords, the paper uses the K-means clustering algorithm. The algorithm first computes the cluster centroid for each group of papers with a specific topic. Then, it will assign a paper into a cluster based on the Euclidean distance between the cluster centroid and the paper’s TF-IDF value.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
However, different values of <math>k</math> (the number of clusters) will return different clustering results. Therefore, it is important to define the number of clusters before clustering. For example, in this paper, the authors choose to use the Elbow scheme to determine the value of <math>k</math>. The Elbow scheme is a somewhat subjective way of choosing an optimal <math>k</math> that involves plotting the average of the squared distances from the cluster centers of the respective clusters (distortion) as a function of <math>k</math> and choosing a <math>k</math> at which point the decrease in distortion is outweighed by the increase in complexity. Also, to measure the performance of clustering, the authors decide to use the Silhouette scheme. The Silhouette scheme is a measure of how well the objects lie within each cluster. Silhouette scores lie from -1 to 1. A positive score indicates that the object is well-matched with its own cluster, while a negative score indicates the opposite (Kaufman & Rousseeuw, 2005). The results of clustering are validated if the Silhouette scheme returns a value greater than <math>0.5</math>.<br />
<br />
=System Testing Results=<br />
<br />
In this paper, the dataset has 3264 research papers from the Future Generation Computer System (FGCS) journal between 1984 and 2017. For constructing keyword dictionaries for each paper, the authors have introduced three methods as shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_3_tmtckd.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
<br />
Then, the authors use the Elbow scheme to define the number of clusters for each method with different numbers of keywords before running the K-means clustering algorithm. The results are shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_4_nocobes.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
According to Table 4, there is a positive correlation between the number of keywords and the number of clusters. In addition, method 3 combines the advantages for both method 1 and method 2; thus, method 3 requires the least clusters in total. On the other hand, the wrong keywords might be presented in papers; hence, it might not be possible to group papers with similar subjects correctly by using method 1 and so method 1 needs the most number of clusters in total.<br />
<br />
<br />
Next, the Silhouette scheme had been used for measuring the performance for clustering. The average of the Silhouette values for each method with different numbers of keywords are shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_5_asv.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Since the clustering is validated if the Silhouette’s value is greater than 0.5, for methods with 10 and 30 keywords, the K-means clustering algorithm produces good results.<br />
<br />
<br />
To evaluate the accuracy of the classification system in this paper, the authors use the F-Score. The authors execute 5 times of experiment and use 500 randomly selected research papers for each trial. The following histogram shows the average value of F-Score for the three methods and different numbers of keywords:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:fig_16_fsvotm.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Note that “TFIDF” means method 1, “LDA” means method 2, and “TFIDF-LDA” means method 3. The number 10, 20, and 30 after each method is the number of keywords the method has used.<br />
According to the histogram above, method 3 has the highest F-Score values than the other two methods with different numbers of keywords. Therefore, the classification system is most accurate when using method 3 as it combines the advantages for both method 1 and method 2.<br />
<br />
=Conclusion=<br />
<br />
This paper introduces a classification system that classifies research papers into different topics by using TF-IDF and LDA scheme with K-means clustering algorithm. The experimental results showed that the proposed system can classify the papers with similar subjects according to the keywords extracted from the abstracts of papers. The authors emphasized that the system can be implemented efficiently on high performance computing infrastructure, using industry-standard technologies. This system allows users to search the papers they want quickly and with the most productivity.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, this classification system might be also used in different types of texts (e.g. documents, tweets, etc.) instead of only classifying research papers.<br />
<br />
=Critique=<br />
<br />
In this paper, DF values are calculated within each partition. This results that for each partition, DF value for a given word will vary and may have an inconsistent result for different partition methods. As mentioned above, there might be a divide by zero problem since some partitions do not have documents containing a given word, but this can be solved by introducing a dummy document as the authors did. Another method that might be better at solving inconsistent results and the divide by zero problems is to have all partitions to communicate with their DF value. Then pass the merged DF value to all partitions to do the final IDF and TF-IDF value. Having all partitions to communicate with the DF value will guarantee a consistent DF value across all partitions and helps avoid a divide by zero problem as words in the keyword dictionary must appear in some documents in the whole collection.<br />
<br />
This paper treated the words in the different parts of a document equivalently, it might perform better if it gives different weights to the same word in different parts. For example, if a word appears in the title of the document, it usually shows it's a main topic of this document so we can put more weight on it to categorize.<br />
<br />
When discussing the potential processing advantages of this classification system for other types of text samples, has the effect of processing mixed samples (text and image or text and video) taken into consideration? IF not, in terms of text classification only, does it have an overwhelming advantage over traditional classification models?<br />
<br />
The preprocessing should also include <math>n</math>-gram tokenization for topic modelling because some topics are inherently two words, such as machine learning where if it is seen separately, it implies different topics.<br />
<br />
This system is very compute-intensive due to the large volumes of dictionaries that can be generated by processing large volumes of data. It would be nice to see how much data HDFS had to process and similarly how much time was saved by using Hadoop for data processing as opposed to centralized approach.<br />
<br />
This system can be improved further in terms of computation times by utilizing other big data framework MapReduce, that can also use HDFS, by parallelizing their computation across multiple nodes for K-means clustering as discussed in (Jin, et al) [5].<br />
<br />
It's not exactly clear what method 3 (TFIDF-LDA) is doing, how is it performing TF-IDF on the topics? Also it seems like the preprocessing step only keeps 10/20/30 top words? This seems like an extremely low number especially in comparison with the LDA which has 10/20/30 topics - what is the reason for so strongly limiting the number of words? It would also be interesting to see if both key words and topics are necessary - an ablation study showing the significance of both would be interesting.<br />
<br />
It is better if the paper has an example with some topics on some research papers. Also it is better if we can visualize the distance between each research paper and the topic names<br />
<br />
I am interested in the first step of the general framework, which is the Paper Crawling step. Many conferences actually require the authors to indicate several key words that best describe a paper. For example, a database paper may have keywords such as "large-scale database management", "information retrieval", and "relational table mining". So in addition to crawling text from abstract, it may be more effective to crawl these keywords directly. Not only does this require less time, these keywords may also lead to better performance than the nouns extracted from the abstract section. I am also slightly concerned about the claim made in the paper that "Our methodologies can be applied to text outside of research papers". Research papers are usually carefully revised and well-structured. Extending the algorithm described in the paper to any kind of free-text could be difficult in practice.<br />
<br />
The paper has very meaningful motivation, since the association of research topics and finding all the relevant previous work is indeed a challenging task at the initials stage of the research. It is often easy to miss a relevant paper published years ago which might be crucial to your own work. However, the classification task that the author tested in this work is almost useless, as the classification is too high-level. The overall scheme of classifying paper between categories like "cloud bigdata" or "IoT privacy" is too general to be meaningful. It is simply classifying the primary field computer science into its direct subfield, while most researchers only work on a niche much narrower than the subfield. Most online paper database, including arxiv, takes care of the subfield and even subsubfield classifcation during the stage of submission, which leaves the author's system with limited applicabilty. What we truly need is an algorithm able to classify and cluster papers based on detailed research topics and methodology. <br />
<br />
It would be better if the author could provide some application or example of the research algorithm in the real world. It would be helpful for the readers to understand the algorithm.<br />
<br />
The summary clearly goes through the model framework well, starting from data-preprocessing, prediction, and testing. It can be enhanced by applying this model to other similar use-cases and how well the prediction goes.<br />
<br />
It will be better if their is a comparison on the BM25 algorithm v.s. TF-IDF, which is usually get compared in IR papers<br />
<br />
The paper misses the details on subjects of research papers used to perform classifications. If the majority of research papers were about one subject, it could potentially produce biased results.<br />
<br />
The paper omits the details of the reason why Method 3 for constructing the Keyword dictionaries requires the least number of k-clusters as method 3 is a combination of methods 1 and 2. It would be of interest to investigate why Method 3 uses so little clusters (in comparison) as it seemed to be the most accurate of the 3 methods. (Also the graph comparing the results could be improved by using a variety of different hues of colours as it is difficult to distinguish some scores such as TFIDF_30 and TFIDF-LDA_30)<br />
<br />
The TF-IDF is interesting as it provides a normalized method to extract the most frequent term contained in the paper, while this method still has spaces of improvements. For example, in some machine learning papers, where special operations have to be done on the datasets, the name of dataset may appear multiple times within the paper. In fact, the main theme of the paper is on the novel machine learning algorithm, which may only be mentioned once. In that case, mis-predictions may occur, and a possible improvement here is to add weights to keywords appearing in each section. i.e the most frequent word in Abstract will have more weights than the most frequent word in Introduction.<br />
<br />
In my opinion, the paper glosses over a few technicalities. First, how does the proposed algorithm deal with subgroups and nested groups. The paper is assuming only one level of sorting, which may work for a sufficiently unique set of paper, but since the problem is meant to be generalized, many papers will have to have multi-level sorts. For example, the category 'machine learning' can be further divided into 'supervised' and 'unsupervised'. Is the algorithm able to handle this or would it create 2 groups (i.e. ML-supervised and ML-unsupervised)? Second, a popular LDA model is available through the gensim package which utilizes relevancy and saliency metrics - how does that factor into the quality of the topics? Third, what is the motivation in using TF-IDF scores for clustering? In my experience, using Word2Vec and BERT has been the industry standard for obtaining vectors to perform clustering on text.<br />
<br />
When working with a larger data set, Spark might be more efficient than Hadoop. Working with natural language, the preprocessing is very important which might significantly determine the accuracy of the results. Therefore, different preprocessing techniques should be used to have a comparison. Lastly, PCA T-SNE might be a good way to visualize the result data.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
<br />
[1] Blei DM, el. (2003). Latent Dirichlet allocation. J Mach Learn Res 3:993–1022<br />
<br />
[2] Gil, JM, Kim, SW. (2019). Research paper classification systems based on TF-IDF and LDA schemes. ''Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences'', 9, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13673-019-0192-7<br />
<br />
[3] Liu, S. (2019, January 11). Dirichlet distribution Motivating LDA. Retrieved November 2020, from https://towardsdatascience.com/dirichlet-distribution-a82ab942a879<br />
<br />
[4] Serrano, L. (Director). (2020, March 18). Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Part 1 of 2) [Video file]. Retrieved 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T05t-SqKArY<br />
<br />
[5] Jin, Cui, Yu. (2016). A New Parallelization Method for K-means. https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1608/1608.06347.pdf<br />
<br />
[6] Kaufman, L., & Rousseeuw, P. J. (2005). Graphical Output Concerning Each Clustering. In Finding groups in data : An introduction to cluster analysis (pp. 84-85). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9780470316801</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Research_Papers_Classification_System&diff=49449Research Papers Classification System2020-12-06T19:15:57Z<p>J632liu: /* Critique */</p>
<hr />
<div>= Presented by =<br />
Jill Wang, Junyi (Jay) Yang, Yu Min (Chris) Wu, Chun Kit (Calvin) Li<br />
<br />
= Introduction =<br />
With the increasing advance of computer science and information technology, there is an increasingly overwhelming number of papers that have been published. Because of the mass number of papers, it has become incredibly hard to find and categorize papers. This paper introduces a paper classification system that utilizes the Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF), Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), and K-means clustering. The most important technology the system used to process big data is the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). The system can handle quantitatively complex research paper classification problems efficiently and accurately.<br />
<br />
===General Framework===<br />
<br />
The paper classification system classifies research papers based on the abstracts given that the core of most papers is presented in the abstracts. <br />
<br />
[[ File:Systemflow.png |right|image on right| 400px]]<br />
<ol><li>Paper Crawling <br />
<p>Collects abstracts from research papers published during a given period</p></li><br />
<li>Preprocessing<br />
<p> <ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>Removes stop words in the papers crawled, in which only nouns are extracted from the papers</li><br />
<li>generates a keyword dictionary, keeping only the top-N keywords with the highest frequencies</li> </ol><br />
</p></li> <br />
<li>Topic Modelling<br />
<p> Use the LDA to group the keywords into topics</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Paper Length Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the total number of occurrences of words to prevent an unbalanced TF values caused by the various length of abstracts using the map-reduce algorithm</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Word Frequency Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the Term Frequency (TF) values which represent the frequency of keywords in a research paper</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Document Frequency Calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the Document Frequency (DF) values which represents the frequency of keywords in a collection of research papers. The higher the DF value, the lower the importance of a keyword.</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>TF-IDF calculation<br />
<p> Calculates the inverse of the DF which represents the importance of a keyword.</p><br />
</li><br />
<li>Paper Classification<br />
<p> Classify papers by topics using the K-means clustering algorithm.</p><br />
</li><br />
</ol><br />
<br />
<br />
===Technologies===<br />
<br />
The HDFS with a Hadoop cluster composed of one master node, one sub-node, and four data nodes is what is used to process the massive paper data. Hadoop-2.6.5 version in Java is what is used to perform the TF-IDF calculation. Spark MLlib is what is used to perform the LDA. The Scikit-learn library is what is used to perform the K-means clustering.<br />
<br />
===HDFS===<br />
<br />
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) was used to process big data in this system. HFDS has been shown to process big data rapidly and stably with high scalability which makes it a perfect choice for this problem. What Hadoop does is to break a big collection of data into different partitions and pass each partition to one individual processor. Each processor will only have information about the partition of data it has received.<br />
<br />
'''In this summary, we are going to focus on introducing the main algorithms of what this system uses, namely LDA, TF-IDF, and K-Means.'''<br />
<br />
=Data Preprocessing=<br />
===Crawling of Abstract Data===<br />
<br />
Under the assumption that audiences tend to first read the abstract of a paper to gain an overall understanding of the material, it is reasonable to assume the abstract section includes “core words” that can be used to effectively classify a paper's subject.<br />
<br />
An abstract is crawled to have its stop words removed. Stop words are words that are usually ignored by search engines, such as “the”, “a”, and etc. Afterward, nouns are extracted, as a more condensed representation for efficient analysis.<br />
<br />
This is managed on HDFS. The TF-IDF value of each paper is calculated through map-reduce, an easy-to-use programming model and implementation for processing and generating large data sets. The user must specify (i) a map procedure, that filters and sorts the input data to produce a set of intermediate key/value pairs and (ii) a reduce function, which performs a summary operation on the intermediate values with the same key and returns a smaller set of output key/value pairs. The MapReduce interface enables this process by grouping the intermediate values with the same key and passing them as input to the reduce function. For example, one could count the number of times various words appear in a large number of documents by setting your map procedure to count the number of occurrences of each word in a single document, and your reduce function to sum all counts of a given word [[https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/1327452.1327492?casa_token=_Zg_DWxQzKEAAAAA:EHII0CaP36_ojGMT8huqTGLNMSEc-CKzZAoXBxSXe6pr2WB0DCQvEKa30CFQW0NSbB2-CVo8GcBcJAg 1]].<br />
<br />
===Managing Paper Data===<br />
<br />
To construct an effective keyword dictionary using abstract data and keywords data in all of the crawled papers, the authors categorized keywords with similar meanings using a single representative keyword. The approach is called stemming, which is common in cleaning data, where words are reduced to their word stem. An example is "running" and "ran" would be reduced to "run". 1394 keyword categories are extracted, which is still too much to compute. Hence, only the top 30 keyword categories are used.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_1_kswf.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
=Topic Modeling Using LDA=<br />
<br />
Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) is a generative probabilistic model that views documents as random mixtures over latent topics. Each topic is a distribution over words, and the goal is to extract these topics from documents.<br />
<br />
LDA estimates the topic-word distribution <math>P\left(t | z\right)</math> (probability of word "z" having topic "t") and the document-topic distribution <math>P\left(z | d\right)</math> (probability of finding word "z" within a given document "d") using Dirichlet priors for the distributions with a fixed number of topics. For each document, obtain a feature vector:<br />
<br />
\[F = \left( P\left(z_1 | d\right), P\left(z_2 | d\right), \cdots, P\left(z_k | d\right) \right)\]<br />
<br />
In the paper, authors extract topics from preprocessed paper to generate three kinds of topic sets, each with 10, 20, and 30 topics respectively. The following is a table of the 10 topic sets of highest frequency keywords.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_2_tswtebls.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
<br />
===LDA Intuition===<br />
<br />
LDA uses the Dirichlet priors of the Dirichlet distribution, which allows the algorithm to model a probability distribution ''over prior probability distributions of words and topics''. The following picture illustrates 2-simplex Dirichlet distributions with different alpha values, one for each corner of the triangles. <br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:dirichlet_dist.png|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Simplex is a generalization of the notion of a triangle in k-1 dimension where k is the number of classes. For example, if you wish to classify essays into three groups, English, History and Math then the simplex would be a 2 dimension triangle, if you add philosophy as one of your potential class, then we would need a tetrahedron in 3 deminsion. In Dirichlet distribution, each parameter will be represented by a corner in simplex, so adding additional parameters implies increasing the dimensions of simplex. As illustrated, when alphas are smaller than 1 the distribution is dense at the corners. When the alphas are greater than 1 the distribution is dense at the centers.<br />
<br />
The following illustration shows an example LDA with 3 topics, 4 words and 7 documents.<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:LDA_example.png|800px]]</div><br />
<br />
In the left diagram, there are three topics, hence it is a 2-simplex. In the right diagram there are four words, hence it is a 3-simplex. LDA essentially adjusts parameters in Dirichlet distributions and multinomial distributions (represented by the points), such that, in the left diagram, all the yellow points representing documents and, in the right diagram, all the points representing topics, are as close to a corner as possible. In other words, LDA finds topics for documents and also finds words for topics. At the end topic-word distribution <math>P\left(t | z\right)</math> and the document-topic distribution <math>P\left(z | d\right)</math> are produced.<br />
<br />
=Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency (TF-IDF) Calculation=<br />
<br />
TF-IDF is widely used to evaluate the importance of a set of words in the fields of information retrieval and text mining. It is a combination of term frequency (TF) and inverse document frequency (IDF). The idea behind this combination is<br />
* It evaluates the importance of a word within a document<br />
* It evaluates the importance of the word among the collection of all documents<br />
<br />
The inverse of the document frequency accounts for the fact that term frequency will naturally increase as document frequency increases. Thus IDF is needed to counteract a word's TF to give an accurate representation of a word's importance.<br />
<br />
The TF-IDF formula has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[TF-IDF_{i,j} = TF_{i,j} \times IDF_{i}\]<br />
<br />
where i stands for the <math>i^{th}</math> word and j stands for the <math>j^{th}</math> document.<br />
<br />
===Term Frequency (TF)===<br />
<br />
TF evaluates the percentage of a given word in a document. Thus, TF value indicates the importance of a word. The TF has a positive relation with the importance.<br />
<br />
In this paper, we only calculate TF for words in the keyword dictionary obtained. For a given keyword i, <math>TF_{i,j}</math> is the number of times word i appears in document j divided by the total number of words in document j.<br />
<br />
The formula for TF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[TF_{i,j} = \frac{n_{i,j} }{\sum_k n_{k,j} }\]<br />
<br />
where i stands for the <math>i^{th}</math> word, j stands for the <math>j^{th}</math> document, <math>n_{i,j}</math> stands for the number of times words <math>t_i</math> appear in document <math>d_j</math> and <math>\sum_k n_{k,j} </math> stands for total number of occurence of words in document <math>d_j</math>.<br />
<br />
Note that the denominator is the total number of words remaining in document j after crawling.<br />
<br />
===Document Frequency (DF)===<br />
<br />
DF evaluates the percentage of documents that contain a given word over the entire collection of documents. Thus, the higher DF value is, the less important the word is.<br />
<br />
<math>DF_{i}</math> is the number of documents in the collection with word i divided by the total number of documents in the collection. The formula for DF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[DF_{i} = \frac{|d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0|}{|D|}\]<br />
<br />
where <math>n_{i,k}</math> is the number of times word i appears in document k, |D| is the total number of documents in the collection.<br />
<br />
Since DF and the importance of the word have an inverse relation, we use inverse document frequency (IDF) instead of DF.<br />
<br />
===Inverse Document Frequency (IDF)===<br />
<br />
In this paper, IDF is calculated in a log scale. Since we will receive a large number of documents, i.e, we will have a large |D|<br />
<br />
The formula for IDF has the following form:<br />
<br />
\[IDF_{i} = log\left(\frac{|D|}{|\{d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0\}|}\right)\]<br />
<br />
As mentioned before, we will use HDFS. The actual formula applied is:<br />
<br />
\[IDF_{i} = log\left(\frac{|D|+1}{|\{d_k \in D: n_{i,k} > 0\}|+1}\right)\]<br />
<br />
The inverse document frequency gives a measure of how rare a certain term is in a given document corpus.<br />
<br />
=Paper Classification Using K-means Clustering=<br />
<br />
The K-means clustering is an unsupervised classification algorithm that groups similar data into the same class. It is an efficient and simple method that can be applied to different types of data attributes. It is also flexible enough to handle various kinds of noise and outliers.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
Given a set of <math>d</math> by <math>n</math> dataset <math>\mathbf{X} = \left[ \mathbf{x}_1 \cdots \mathbf{x}_n \right]</math>, the algorithm will assign each <math>\mathbf{x}_j</math> into <math>k</math> different clusters based on the characteristics of <math>\mathbf{x}_j</math> itself.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
Moreover, when assigning data into a cluster, the algorithm will also try to minimise the distances between the data and the centre of the cluster which the data belongs to. That is, k-means clustering will minimize the sum of square error:<br />
<br />
\begin{align*}<br />
min \sum_{i=1}^{k} \sum_{j \in C_i} ||x_j - \mu_i||^2<br />
\end{align*}<br />
<br />
where<br />
<ul><br />
<li><math>k</math>: the number of clusters</li><br />
<li><math>C_i</math>: the <math>i^th</math> cluster</li><br />
<li><math>x_j</math>: the <math>j^th</math> data in the <math>C_i</math></li><br />
<li><math>mu_i</math>: the centroid of <math>C_i</math></li><br />
<li><math>||x_j - \mu_i||^2</math>: the Euclidean distance between <math>x_j</math> and <math>\mu_i</math></li><br />
</ul><br />
<br><br />
<br />
K-means Clustering algorithm, an unsupervised algorithm, is chosen because of its advantages to deal with different types of attributes, to run with minimal requirement of domain knowledge, to deal with noise and outliers, to realize clusters with similarities. <br />
<br />
<br />
Since the goal for this paper is to classify research papers and group papers with similar topics based on keywords, the paper uses the K-means clustering algorithm. The algorithm first computes the cluster centroid for each group of papers with a specific topic. Then, it will assign a paper into a cluster based on the Euclidean distance between the cluster centroid and the paper’s TF-IDF value.<br />
<br><br />
<br />
However, different values of <math>k</math> (the number of clusters) will return different clustering results. Therefore, it is important to define the number of clusters before clustering. For example, in this paper, the authors choose to use the Elbow scheme to determine the value of <math>k</math>. The Elbow scheme is a somewhat subjective way of choosing an optimal <math>k</math> that involves plotting the average of the squared distances from the cluster centers of the respective clusters (distortion) as a function of <math>k</math> and choosing a <math>k</math> at which point the decrease in distortion is outweighed by the increase in complexity. Also, to measure the performance of clustering, the authors decide to use the Silhouette scheme. The results of clustering are validated if the Silhouette scheme returns a value greater than <math>0.5</math>.<br />
<br />
=System Testing Results=<br />
<br />
In this paper, the dataset has 3264 research papers from the Future Generation Computer System (FGCS) journal between 1984 and 2017. For constructing keyword dictionaries for each paper, the authors have introduced three methods as shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_3_tmtckd.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
<br />
Then, the authors use the Elbow scheme to define the number of clusters for each method with different numbers of keywords before running the K-means clustering algorithm. The results are shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_4_nocobes.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
According to Table 4, there is a positive correlation between the number of keywords and the number of clusters. In addition, method 3 combines the advantages for both method 1 and method 2; thus, method 3 requires the least clusters in total. On the other hand, the wrong keywords might be presented in papers; hence, it might not be possible to group papers with similar subjects correctly by using method 1 and so method 1 needs the most number of clusters in total.<br />
<br />
<br />
Next, the Silhouette scheme had been used for measuring the performance for clustering. The average of the Silhouette values for each method with different numbers of keywords are shown below:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:table_5_asv.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Since the clustering is validated if the Silhouette’s value is greater than 0.5, for methods with 10 and 30 keywords, the K-means clustering algorithm produces good results.<br />
<br />
<br />
To evaluate the accuracy of the classification system in this paper, the authors use the F-Score. The authors execute 5 times of experiment and use 500 randomly selected research papers for each trial. The following histogram shows the average value of F-Score for the three methods and different numbers of keywords:<br />
<br />
<div align="center">[[File:fig_16_fsvotm.JPG|700px]]</div><br />
<br />
Note that “TFIDF” means method 1, “LDA” means method 2, and “TFIDF-LDA” means method 3. The number 10, 20, and 30 after each method is the number of keywords the method has used.<br />
According to the histogram above, method 3 has the highest F-Score values than the other two methods with different numbers of keywords. Therefore, the classification system is most accurate when using method 3 as it combines the advantages for both method 1 and method 2.<br />
<br />
=Conclusion=<br />
<br />
This paper introduces a classification system that classifies research papers into different topics by using TF-IDF and LDA scheme with K-means clustering algorithm. The experimental results showed that the proposed system can classify the papers with similar subjects according to the keywords extracted from the abstracts of papers. The authors emphasized that the system can be implemented efficiently on high performance computing infrastructure, using industry-standard technologies. This system allows users to search the papers they want quickly and with the most productivity.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, this classification system might be also used in different types of texts (e.g. documents, tweets, etc.) instead of only classifying research papers.<br />
<br />
=Critique=<br />
<br />
In this paper, DF values are calculated within each partition. This results that for each partition, DF value for a given word will vary and may have an inconsistent result for different partition methods. As mentioned above, there might be a divide by zero problem since some partitions do not have documents containing a given word, but this can be solved by introducing a dummy document as the authors did. Another method that might be better at solving inconsistent results and the divide by zero problems is to have all partitions to communicate with their DF value. Then pass the merged DF value to all partitions to do the final IDF and TF-IDF value. Having all partitions to communicate with the DF value will guarantee a consistent DF value across all partitions and helps avoid a divide by zero problem as words in the keyword dictionary must appear in some documents in the whole collection.<br />
<br />
This paper treated the words in the different parts of a document equivalently, it might perform better if it gives different weights to the same word in different parts. For example, if a word appears in the title of the document, it usually shows it's a main topic of this document so we can put more weight on it to categorize.<br />
<br />
When discussing the potential processing advantages of this classification system for other types of text samples, has the effect of processing mixed samples (text and image or text and video) taken into consideration? IF not, in terms of text classification only, does it have an overwhelming advantage over traditional classification models?<br />
<br />
The preprocessing should also include <math>n</math>-gram tokenization for topic modelling because some topics are inherently two words, such as machine learning where if it is seen separately, it implies different topics.<br />
<br />
This system is very compute-intensive due to the large volumes of dictionaries that can be generated by processing large volumes of data. It would be nice to see how much data HDFS had to process and similarly how much time was saved by using Hadoop for data processing as opposed to centralized approach.<br />
<br />
This system can be improved further in terms of computation times by utilizing other big data framework MapReduce, that can also use HDFS, by parallelizing their computation across multiple nodes for K-means clustering as discussed in (Jin, et al) [5].<br />
<br />
It's not exactly clear what method 3 (TFIDF-LDA) is doing, how is it performing TF-IDF on the topics? Also it seems like the preprocessing step only keeps 10/20/30 top words? This seems like an extremely low number especially in comparison with the LDA which has 10/20/30 topics - what is the reason for so strongly limiting the number of words? It would also be interesting to see if both key words and topics are necessary - an ablation study showing the significance of both would be interesting.<br />
<br />
It is better if the paper has an example with some topics on some research papers. Also it is better if we can visualize the distance between each research paper and the topic names<br />
<br />
I am interested in the first step of the general framework, which is the Paper Crawling step. Many conferences actually require the authors to indicate several key words that best describe a paper. For example, a database paper may have keywords such as "large-scale database management", "information retrieval", and "relational table mining". So in addition to crawling text from abstract, it may be more effective to crawl these keywords directly. Not only does this require less time, these keywords may also lead to better performance than the nouns extracted from the abstract section. I am also slightly concerned about the claim made in the paper that "Our methodologies can be applied to text outside of research papers". Research papers are usually carefully revised and well-structured. Extending the algorithm described in the paper to any kind of free-text could be difficult in practice.<br />
<br />
It would be better if the author could provide some application or example of the research algorithm in the real world. It would be helpful for the readers to understand the algorithm.<br />
<br />
The summary clearly goes through the model framework well, starting from data-preprocessing, prediction, and testing. It can be enhanced by applying this model to other similar use-cases and how well the prediction goes.<br />
<br />
It will be better if their is a comparison on the BM25 algorithm v.s. TF-IDF, which is usually get compared in IR papers<br />
<br />
The paper misses the details on subjects of research papers used to perform classifications. If the majority of research papers were about one subject, it could potentially produce biased results.<br />
<br />
The paper omits the details of the reason why Method 3 for constructing the Keyword dictionaries requires the least number of k-clusters as method 3 is a combination of methods 1 and 2. It would be of interest to investigate why Method 3 uses so little clusters (in comparison) as it seemed to be the most accurate of the 3 methods. (Also the graph comparing the results could be improved by using a variety of different hues of colours as it is difficult to distinguish some scores such as TFIDF_30 and TFIDF-LDA_30)<br />
<br />
The TF-IDF is interesting as it provides a normalized method to extract the most frequent term contained in the paper, while this method still has spaces of improvements. For example, in some machine learning papers, where special operations have to be done on the datasets, the name of dataset may appear multiple times within the paper. In fact, the main theme of the paper is on the novel machine learning algorithm, which may only be mentioned once. In that case, mis-predictions may occur, and a possible improvement here is to add weights to keywords appearing in each section. i.e the most frequent word in Abstract will have more weights than the most frequent word in Introduction.<br />
<br />
=References=<br />
<br />
[1] Blei DM, el. (2003). Latent Dirichlet allocation. J Mach Learn Res 3:993–1022<br />
<br />
[2] Gil, JM, Kim, SW. (2019). Research paper classification systems based on TF-IDF and LDA schemes. ''Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences'', 9, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13673-019-0192-7<br />
<br />
[3] Liu, S. (2019, January 11). Dirichlet distribution Motivating LDA. Retrieved November 2020, from https://towardsdatascience.com/dirichlet-distribution-a82ab942a879<br />
<br />
[4] Serrano, L. (Director). (2020, March 18). Latent Dirichlet Allocation (Part 1 of 2) [Video file]. Retrieved 2020, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T05t-SqKArY<br />
<br />
[5] Jin, Cui, Yu. (2016). A New Parallelization Method for K-means. https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1608/1608.06347.pdf</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Mask_RCNN&diff=49158Mask RCNN2020-12-04T19:59:44Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Qing Guo, Xueguang Ma, James Ni, Yuanxin Wang<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Mask RCNN [1] is a deep neural network architecture that aims to solve instance segmentation problems in computer vision which is important when attempting to identify different objects within the same image. RCNN base architectures first extract a regional proposal (a region of the image where the object of interest is proposed to lie) and then attempts to classify the object within it. <br />
Mask R-CNN extends Faster R-CNN [2] by adding a branch for predicting an object mask in parallel with the existing branch for bounding box recognition. This is done by using a Fully Convolutional Network as each mask branch in a pixel-by-pixel way. Mask R-CNN is simple to train and adds only a small overhead to Faster R-CNN, running at 5 fps. Moreover, Mask R-CNN is easy to generalize to other tasks, e.g., allowing us to estimate human poses in the same framework. Mask R-CNN achieved top results in all three tracks of the COCO suite of challenges [3], including instance segmentation, bounding-box object detection, and person keypoint detection.<br />
<br />
== Visual Perception Tasks == <br />
<br />
Figure 1 shows a visual representation of different types of visual perception tasks:<br />
<br />
- Image Classification: Predict a set of labels to characterize the contents of an input image<br />
<br />
- Object Detection: Build on image classification but localize each object in an image by placing bounding boxes around the objects<br />
<br />
- Semantic Segmentation: Associate every pixel in an input image with a class label<br />
<br />
- Instance Segmentation: Associate every pixel in an input image to a specific object. Instance segmentation combines image classification, object detection and semantic segmentation making it a complex task [1].<br />
<br />
[[File:instance segmentation.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 1: Visual Perception tasks</div><br />
<br />
<br />
Mask RCNN is a deep neural network architecture for Instance Segmentation.<br />
<br />
== Related Work == <br />
Region Proposal Network: A Region Proposal Network (RPN) takes an image (of any size) as input and outputs a set of rectangular object proposals, each with an objectness score.<br />
<br />
ROI Pooling: The main use of ROI (Region of Interest) Pooling is to adjust the proposal to a uniform size. It’s better for the subsequent network to process. It maps the proposal to the corresponding position of the feature map, divide the mapped area into sections of the same size, and performs max pooling or average pooling operations on each section.<br />
<br />
Faster R-CNN: Faster R-CNN consists of two stages: Region Proposal Network and ROI Pooling. Region Proposal Network proposes candidate object bounding boxes. ROI Pooling, which is in essence Fast R-CNN, extracts features using RoIPool from each candidate box and performs classification and bounding-box regression. The features used by both stages can be shared for faster inference.<br />
<br />
[[File:FasterRCNN.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 2: Faster RCNN architecture</div><br />
<br />
<br />
ResNet-FPN: FPN uses a top-down architecture with lateral connections to build an in-network feature pyramid from a single-scale input. FPN is a general architecture that can be used in conjunction with various networks, such as VGG, ResNet, etc. Faster R-CNN with an FPN backbone extracts RoI features from different levels of the feature pyramid according to their scale. Other than FPN, the rest of the approach is similar to vanilla ResNet. Using a ResNet-FPN backbone for feature extraction with Mask RCNN gives excellent gains in both accuracy and speed.<br />
<br />
[[File:ResNetFPN.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 3: ResNetFPN architecture</div><br />
<br />
== Model Architecture == <br />
The structure of mask R-CNN is quite similar to the structure of faster R-CNN. <br />
Faster R-CNN has two stages, the RPN(Region Proposal Network) first proposes candidate object bounding boxes. Then RoIPool extracts the features from these boxes. After the features are extracted, these features data can be analyzed using classification and bounding-box regression. Mask R-CNN shares the identical first stage. But the second stage is adjusted to tackle the issue of simplifying the stages pipeline. Instead of only performing classification and bounding-box regression, it also outputs a binary mask for each RoI as <math>L=L_{cls}+L_{box}+L_{mask}</math>, where <math>L_{cls}</math>, <math>L_{box}</math>, <math>L_{mask}</math> represent the classification loss, bounding box loss and the average binary cross-entropy loss respectively.<br />
<br />
The important concept here is that, for most recent network systems, there's a certain order to follow when performing classification and regression, because classification depends on mask predictions. Mask R-CNN, on the other hand, applies bounding-box classification and regression in parallel, which effectively simplifies the multi-stage pipeline of the original R-CNN. And just for comparison, complete R-CNN pipeline stages involve 1. Make region proposals; 2. Feature extraction from region proposals; 3. SVM for object classification; 4. Bounding box regression. In conclusion, stages 3 and 4 are adjusted to simplify the network procedures.<br />
<br />
The system follows the multi-task loss, which by formula equals classification loss plus bounding-box loss plus the average binary cross-entropy loss.<br />
One thing worth noticing is that for other network systems, those masks across classes compete with each other, but in this particular case, with a <br />
per-pixel sigmoid and a binary loss the masks across classes no longer compete, which makes this formula the key for good instance segmentation results.<br />
<br />
'' RoIAlign''<br />
<br />
This concept is useful in stage 2 where the RoIPool extracts features from bounding-boxes. For each RoI as input, there will be a mask and a feature map as output. The mask is obtained using the FCN(Fully Convolutional Network) and the feature map is obtained using the RoIPool. The mask helps with spatial layout, which is crucial to the pixel-to-pixel correspondence. <br />
<br />
The two things we desire along the procedure are: pixel-to-pixel correspondence; no quantization is performed on any coordinates involved in the RoI, its bins, or the sampling points. Pixel-to-pixel correspondence makes sure that the input and output match in size. If there is a size difference, there will be information loss, and coordinates cannot be matched. <br />
<br />
RoIPool is standard for extracting a small feature map from each RoI. However, it performs quantization before subdividing into spatial bins which are further quantized. Quantization produces misalignments when it comes to predicting pixel accurate masks. Therefore, instead of quantization, the coordinates are computed using bilinear interpolation They use bilinear interpolation to get the exact values of the inputs features at the 4 RoI bins and aggregate the result (using max or average). These results are robust to the sampling location and number of points and to guarantee spatial correspondence.<br />
<br />
The network architectures utilized are called ResNet and ResNeXt. The depth can be either 50 or 101. ResNet-FPN(Feature Pyramid Network) is used for feature extraction. <br />
<br />
Some implementation details should be mentioned: first, an RoI is considered positive if it has IoU with a ground-truth box of at least 0.5 and negative otherwise. It is important because the mask loss Lmask is defined only on positive RoIs. Second, image-centric training is used to rescale images so that pixel correspondence is achieved. An example complete structure is, the proposal number is 1000 for FPN, and then run the box prediction branch on these proposals. The mask branch is then applied to the highest scoring 100 detection boxes. The mask branch can predict K masks per RoI, but only the kth mask will be used, where k is the predicted class by the classification branch. The m-by-m floating-number mask output is then resized to the RoI size and binarized at a threshold of 0.5.<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
[[File:ExpInstanceSeg.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 4: Instance Segmentation Experiments</div><br />
<br />
Instance Segmentation: Based on COCO dataset, Mask R-CNN outperforms all categories comparing to MNC and FCIS which are state of the art model <br />
<br />
[[File:BoundingBoxExp.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 5: Bounding Box Detection Experiments</div><br />
<br />
Bounding Box Detection: Mask R-CNN outperforms the base variants of all previous state-of-the-art models, including the winner of the COCO 2016 Detection Challenge.<br />
<br />
== Ablation Experiments ==<br />
[[File:BackboneExp.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 6: Backbone Architecture Experiments</div><br />
<br />
(a) Backbone Architecture: Better backbones bring expected gains: deeper networks do better, FPN outperforms C4 features, and ResNeXt improves on ResNet. <br />
<br />
[[File:MultiVSInde.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 7: Multinomial vs. Independent Masks Experiments</div><br />
<br />
(b) Multinomial vs. Independent Masks (ResNet-50-C4): Decoupling via perclass binary masks (sigmoid) gives large gains over multinomial masks (softmax).<br />
<br />
[[File: RoIAlign.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 8: RoIAlign Experiments 1</div><br />
<br />
(c) RoIAlign (ResNet-50-C4): Mask results with various RoI layers. Our RoIAlign layer improves AP by ∼3 points and AP75 by ∼5 points. Using proper alignment is the only factor that contributes to the large gap between RoI layers. <br />
<br />
[[File: RoIAlignExp.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 9: RoIAlign Experiments w Experiments</div><br />
<br />
(d) RoIAlign (ResNet-50-C5, stride 32): Mask-level and box-level AP using large-stride features. Misalignments are more severe than with stride-16 features, resulting in big accuracy gaps.<br />
<br />
[[File:MaskBranchExp.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 10: Mask Branch Experiments</div><br />
<br />
(e) Mask Branch (ResNet-50-FPN): Fully convolutional networks (FCN) vs. multi-layer perceptrons (MLP, fully-connected) for mask prediction. FCNs improve results as they take advantage of explicitly encoding spatial layout.<br />
<br />
== Human Pose Estimation ==<br />
Mask RCNN can be extended to human pose estimation.<br />
<br />
The simple approach the paper presents is to model a keypoint’s location as a one-hot mask, and adopt Mask R-CNN to predict K masks, one for each of K keypoint types such as left shoulder, right elbow. The model has minimal knowledge of human pose and this example illustrates the generality of the model.<br />
<br />
[[File:HumanPose.png | center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 11: Keypoint Detection Results</div><br />
<br />
== Experiments on Cityscapes ==<br />
The model was also tested on Cityscapes dataset. From this dataset the authors used 2975 annotated images for training, 500 for validation, and 1525 for testing. The instance segmentation task involved eight categories: person, rider, car, truck, bus, train, motorcycle and bicycle. When the Mask R-CNN model was applied to the data it achieved 26.2 AP on the testing data which was an over 30% improvement on the previous best entry. <br />
<br />
<center><br />
[[ File:cityscapeDataset.png ]]<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 12. Cityscapes Results<br />
</center><br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
Mask RCNN is a deep neural network aimed to solve the instance segmentation problems in machine learning or computer vision. Mask R-CNN is a conceptually simple, flexible, and general framework for object instance segmentation. It can efficiently detect objects in an image while simultaneously generating a high-quality segmentation mask for each instance. It does object detection and instance segmentation, and can also be extended to human pose estimation.<br />
It extends Faster R-CNN by adding a branch for predicting an object mask in parallel with the existing branch for bounding box recognition. Mask R-CNN is simple to train and adds only a small overhead to Faster R-CNN, running at 5 fps.<br />
<br />
== Critiques ==<br />
In Faster RCNN, the ROI boundary is quantized. However, mask RCNN avoids quantization and used the bilinear interpolation to compute exact values of features. By solving the misalignments due to quantization, the number and location of sampling points have no impact on the result.<br />
<br />
It may be better to compare the proposed model with other NN models or even non-NN methods like spectral clustering. Also, the applications can be further discussed like geometric mesh processing and motion analysis.<br />
<br />
The paper lacks the comparisons of different methods and Mask RNN on unlabeled data, as the paper only briefly mentioned that the authors found out that Mask R_CNN can benefit from extra data, even if the data is unlabelled.<br />
<br />
The Mask RCNN has many practical applications as well. A particular example, where Mask RCNNs are applied would be in autonomous vehicles. Namely, it would be able to help with isolating pedestrians, other vehicles, lights, etc.<br />
<br />
The Mask RCNN could be a candidate model to do short-term predictions on the physical behaviors of a person, which could be very useful at crime scenes.<br />
<br />
An interesting application of Mask RCNN would be on face recognition from CCTVs. Flurry pictures of crowded people could be obtained from CCTV, so that mask RCNN can be applied to distinguish each person.<br />
<br />
The main problem for CNN architectures like Mask RCNN is the running time. Due to slow running times, Single Shot Detector algorithms are preferred for applications like video or live stream detections, where a faster running time would mean a better response to changes in frames. It would be beneficial to have a graphical representation of the Mask RCNN running times against single shot detector algorithms such as YOLOv3.<br />
<br />
It is interesting to investigate a solution of embedding instance segmentation with semantic segmentation to improve time performance. Because in many situations, knowing the exact boundary of an object is not necessary.<br />
<br />
It will be better if we can have more comparisons with other models. It will also be nice if we can have more details about why Mask RCNN can perform better, and how about the efficiency of it?<br />
The authors mentioned that Mask R-CNN is a deep neural network architecture for Instance Segmentation. It's better to include more background information about this task. For example, challenges of this task (e.g. the model will need to take into account the overlapping of objects) and limitations of existing methods.<br />
<br />
It would be interesting to see how a postprocessing step with conditional random fields (CRF) might improve (or not?) segmentation. It would also have been interesting to see the performance of the method with lighter backbones since the backbones used to have a very large inference time which makes them unsuitable for many applications.<br />
<br />
An extension of the application of Mask RCNN in medical AI is to highlight areas of an MRI scan that correlate to certain behavioral/psychological patterns.<br />
<br />
The use of these in medical imaging systems seems rather useful, but it can also be extended to more general CCTV camera systems which can also detect physiological patterns.<br />
<br />
In the Human Pose Estimation section, we assume that Mask RCNN does not have any knowledge of human poses, and all the predictions are based on keypoints on human bodies, for example, left shoulder and right elbow. While in fact we may be able to achieve better performances here because currently this approach is strongly dependent on correct classifications of human body parts. That is, if the model messed up the position of left shoulder, the position estimation will be awful. It is important to remove the dependency on preceding predictions, so that even when previous steps fail, we may still expect a fair performance.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Kaiming He, Georgia Gkioxari, Piotr Dollár, Ross Girshick. Mask R-CNN. arXiv:1703.06870, 2017.<br />
<br />
[2] Shaoqing Ren, Kaiming He, Ross Girshick, Jian Sun. Faster R-CNN: Towards Real-Time Object Detection with Region Proposal Networks, arXiv:1506.01497, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Tsung-Yi Lin, Michael Maire, Serge Belongie, Lubomir Bourdev, Ross Girshick, James Hays, Pietro Perona, Deva Ramanan, C. Lawrence Zitnick, Piotr Dollár. Microsoft COCO: Common Objects in Context. arXiv:1405.0312, 2015</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Describtion_of_Text_Mining&diff=49145Describtion of Text Mining2020-12-04T09:09:48Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Yawen Wang, Danmeng Cui, Zijie Jiang, Mingkang Jiang, Haotian Ren, Haris Bin Zahid<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
This paper focuses on the different text mining techniques and the applications of text mining in the healthcare and biomedical domain. The text mining field has been popular as a result of the amount of text data that is available in different forms. The text data is bound to grow even more in 2020, indicating a 50 times growth since 2010. Text is unstructured information, which is easy for humans to construct and understand but difficult for machines. Hence, there is a need to design algorithms to effectively process this avalanche of text. To further explore the text mining field, the related text mining approaches can be considered. The different text mining approaches relate to two main methods: knowledge delivery and traditional data mining methods. <br />
<br />
The authors note that knowledge delivery methods involve the application of different steps to a specific data set to create specific patterns. Research in knowledge delivery methods has evolved over the years due to advances in hardware and software technology. On the other hand, data mining has experienced substantial development through the intersection of three fields: databases, machine learning, and statistics. As brought out by the authors, text mining approaches focus on the exploration of information from a specific text. The information explored is in the form of structured, semi-structured, and unstructured text. It is important to note that text mining covers different sets of algorithms and topics that include information retrieval. The topics and algorithms are used for analyzing different text forms.<br />
<br />
==Text Representation and Encoding ==<br />
The authors review multiple methods of preprocessing text, including 4 methods to preprocess and recognize influence and frequency of individual group of words in a document. In many text mining algorithms, one of the key components is preprocessing. Preprocessing consists of different tasks that include filtering, tokenization, stemming, and lemmatization. The first step is tokenization, where a character sequence is broken down into different words or phrases. After the breakdown, filtering is carried out to remove some words. The various word inflected forms are grouped together through lemmatization, and later, the derived roots of the derived words are obtained through stemming.<br />
<br />
'''1. Tokenization'''<br />
<br />
This process splits text into units of words of phrases known as tokens while removing unnecessary characters. Characters such as punctuation are removed and the text is split at space characters. An example of this would be converting the string "This is my string" to "This", "is", "my", "string".<br />
<br />
'''2. Filtering'''<br />
<br />
Filtering is a process by which unnecessary words or characters are removed. Often these include punctuation, prepositions, and conjugations. The resulting corpus then contains words with maximal importance in distinguishing between classes.<br />
<br />
'''3. Lemmatization'''<br />
<br />
Lemmatization is a task where convert various inflected forms of a word to a single form. However, we must specify the POS of each words, which can prone to human error. <br />
<br />
'''4. Stemming'''<br />
<br />
Stemming extracts the roots of words. It is a language dependent process. The goal of both stemming is to reduce inflectional and related (definition wise) forms of a word to a common base form. An example of this would be changing "am", "are", or "is" to "be".<br />
<br />
'''Vector Space Model'''<br />
In this section of the paper, the authors explore the different ways in which the text can be represented on a large collection of documents. One common way of representing the documents is in the form of a bag of words. The bag of words considers the occurrences of different terms.<br />
In different text mining applications, documents are ranked and represented as vectors so as to display the significance of any word. <br />
The authors note that the three basic models used are vector space, inference network, and the probabilistic models. The vector space model is used to represent documents by converting them into vectors. In the model, a variable is used to represent each model to indicate the importance of the word in the document. <br />
<br />
The weights have 2 main models used Boolean model and TF-IDF model: <br />
'''Boolean model'''<br />
terms are assignment with a positive wij if the term appears in the document. otherwise, it will be assigned a weight of 0. <br />
<br />
'''term frequency - inverse document frequency (TF-IDF)'''<br />
The words are weighted using the TF-IDF scheme computed as <br />
<br />
$$<br />
q(w)=f_d(w)*\log{\frac{|D|}{f_D(w)}}<br />
$$<br />
<br />
The frequency of each term is normalized by the inverse of document frequency, which helps distinct words with low frequency is recognized its importance. Each document is represented by a vector of term weights, <math>\omega(d) = (\omega(d, w_1), \omega(d,w_2),...,\omega(d,w_v))</math>. The similarity between two documents <math>d_1, d_2</math> is commonly measured by cosine similarity:<br />
$$<br />
S(d_1,d_2) = \cos(\theta) = \frac{d_1\cdot d_2}{\sum_{i=1}^vw^2_{1i}\cdot\sum_{i=1}^vw^2_{2i}}<br />
$$<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Classification ==<br />
Classification in Text Mining aims to assign predefined classes to text documents. For a set <math>\mathcal{D} = {d_1, d_2, ... d_n}</math> of documents, each <math>d_i</math> is mapped to a label <math>l_i</math> from the set <math>\mathcal{L} = {l_1, l_2, ... l_k}</math>. The goal is to find a classification model <math>f</math> such that: <math>\\</math><br />
$$<br />
f: \mathcal{D} \rightarrow \mathcal{L} \quad \quad \quad f(\mathcal{d}) = \mathcal{l}<br />
$$<br />
The author illustrates 4 different classifiers that are commonly used in text mining.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Naive Bayes Classifier''' <br />
<br />
Bayes rule is used to classify new examples and select the class that has the generated result that occurs most often. <br />
Naive Bayes Classifier models the distribution of documents in each class using a probabilistic model assuming that the distribution<br />
of different terms is independent of each other. The models commonly used in this classifier tried to find the posterior probability of a class based on the distribution and assumes that the documents generated are based on a mixture model parameterized by <math>\theta</math> and compute the likelihood of a document using the sum of probabilities over all mixture component. In addition, the Naive Bayes Classifier can help get around the curse of dimensionality, which may arise with high-dimensional data, such as text. <br />
<br />
'''2. Nearest Neighbour Classifier'''<br />
<br />
Nearest Neighbour Classifier uses distance-based measures to perform the classification. The documents which belong to the same class are more likely "similar" or close to each other based on the similarity measure. The classification of the test documents is inferred from the class labels of similar documents in the training set. K-Nearest Neighbor classification is well known to suffer from the "curse of dimensionality", as the proportional volume of each $d$-sphere surrounding each datapoint compared to the volume of the sample space shrinks exponentially in $d$. <br />
<br />
'''3. Decision Tree Classifier'''<br />
<br />
A hierarchical tree of the training instances, in which a condition on the attribute value is used to divide the data hierarchically. The decision tree recursively partitions the training data set into smaller subdivisions based on a set of tests defined at each node or branch. Each node of the tree is a test of some attribute of the training instance, and each branch descending from the node corresponds to one of the values of this attribute. The conditions on the nodes are commonly defined by the terms in the text documents.<br />
<br />
'''4. Support Vector Machines'''<br />
<br />
SVM is a form of Linear Classifiers which are models that makes a classification decision based on the value of the linear combinations of the documents features. The output of a linear predictor is defined to the <math> y=\vec{a} \cdot \vec{x} + b</math> where <math>\vec{x}</math> is the normalized document word frequency vector, <math>\vec{a}</math> is a vector of coefficient and <math>b</math> is a scalar. Support Vector Machines attempts to find a linear separators between various classes. An advantage of the SVM method is it is robust to high dimensionality.<br />
<br />
== Clustering ==<br />
Clustering has been extensively studied in the context of the text as it has a wide range of applications such as visualization and document organization.<br />
<br />
Clustering algorithms are used to group similar documents and thus aid in information retrieval. Text clustering can be in different levels of granularities, where clusters can be documents, paragraphs, sentences, or terms. Since text data has numerous distance characteristics that demand the design of text-specific algorithms for the task, using a binary vector to represent the text document is simply not enough. Here are some unique properties of text representation:<br />
<br />
1. Text representation has a large dimensionality, in which the size of the vocabulary from which the documents are drawn is massive, but a document might only contain a small number of words.<br />
<br />
2. The words in the documents are usually correlated with each other. Need to take the correlation into consideration when designing algorithms.<br />
<br />
3. The number of words differs from one another of the document. Thus the document needs to be normalized first before the clustering process.<br />
<br />
Three most commonly used text clustering algorithms are presented below.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Hierarchical Clustering algorithms''' <br />
<br />
Hierarchical Clustering algorithms builds a group of clusters that can be depicted as a hierarchy of clusters. The hierarchy can be constructed in top-down (divisive) or bottom-up (agglomeration). Hierarchical clustering algorithms are one of the Distanced-based clustering algorithms, i.e., using a similarity function to measure the closeness between text documents.<br />
<br />
In the top-down approach, the algorithm begins with one cluster which includes all the documents. we recursively split this cluster into sub-clusters.<br />
Here is an example of a Hierarchical Clustering algorithm, the data is to be clustered by the euclidean distance. This method builds the hierarchy from the individual elements by progressively merging clusters. In our example, we have six elements {a} {b} {c} {d} {e} and {f}. The first step determines which elements to merge in a cluster by taking the two closest elements, according to the chosen distance.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:418px-Hierarchical clustering simple diagram.svg.png| 300px | center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center">Figure 1: Hierarchical Clustering Raw Data</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:250px-Clusters.svg (1).png| 200px | center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center">Figure 2: Hierarchical Clustering Clustered Data</div><br />
<br />
A main advantage of hierarchical clustering is that the algorithm only needs to be done once for any number of clusters (ie. if an individual wishes to use a different number of clusters than originally intended, they do not need to repeat the algorithm)<br />
<br />
'''2. k-means Clustering'''<br />
<br />
k-means clustering is a partitioning algorithm that partitions n documents in the context of text data into k clusters.<br />
<br />
Input: Document D, similarity measure S, number k of cluster<br />
Output: Set of k clusters<br />
Select randomly ''k'' datapoints as starting centroids<br />
While ''not converged'' do <br />
Assign documents to the centroids based on the closest similarity<br />
Calculate the cluster centroids for all clusters<br />
return ''k clusters''<br />
<br />
The main disadvantage of k-means clustering is that it is indeed very sensitive to the initial choice of the number of k. Also, since the function is run until clusters converges, k-means clustering tends to take longer to perform than hierarchical clustering. On the other hand, advantages of k-means clustering are that it is simple to implement, the algorithm scales well to large datasets, and the results are easily interpretable.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Probabilistic Clustering and Topic Models'''<br />
<br />
Topic modeling is one of the most popular probabilistic clustering algorithms in recent studies. The main idea is to create a *probabilistic generative model* for the corpus of text documents. In topic models, documents are a mixture of topics, where each topic represents a probability distribution over words.<br />
<br />
There are two main topic models:<br />
* Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (pLSA)<br />
* Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)<br />
<br />
The paper covers LDA in more detail. LDA is a state-of-the-art unsupervised algorithm for extracting topics from a collection of documents.<br />
<br />
Given <math>\mathcal{D} = \{d_1, d_2, \cdots, d_{|\mathcal{D}|}\}</math> is the corpus and <math>\mathcal{V} = \{w_1, w_2, \cdots, w_{|\mathcal{V}|}\}</math> is the vocabulary of the corpus. <br />
<br />
A topic is <math>z_j, 1 \leq j \leq K</math> is a multinomial probability distribution over <math>|\mathcal{V}|</math> words. <br />
<br />
The distribution of words in a given document is:<br />
<br />
<math>p(w_i|d) = \Sigma_{j=1}^K p(w_i|z_j)p(z_j|d)</math><br />
<br />
The LDA assumes the following generative process for the corpus of <math>\mathcal{D}</math><br />
* For each topic <math>k\in \{1,2,\cdots, K\}</math>, sample a word distribution <math>\phi_k \sim Dir(\beta)</math><br />
* For each document <math>d \in \{1,2,\cdots,D\}</math><br />
** Sample a topic distribution <math>\theta_d \sim Dir(\alpha)</math><br />
** For each word <math>w_n, n \in \{1,2,\cdots,N\}</math> in document <math>d</math><br />
*** Sample a topic <math>z_i \sim Mult(\theta_d)</math><br />
*** Sample a word <math>w_n \sim Mult(\phi_{z_i})</math><br />
<br />
In practice, LDA is often used as a module in more complicated models and has already been applied to a wide variety of domains. In addition, many variations of LDA has been created, including supervised LDA (sLDA) and hierarchical LDA (hLDA)<br />
<br />
== Information Extraction ==<br />
Information Extraction (IE) is the process of extracting useful, structured information from unstructured or semi-structured text. It automatically extracts based on our command. <br />
<br />
For example, from the sentence “XYZ company was founded by Peter in the year of 1950”, we can identify the two following relations:<br />
<br />
1. Founderof(Peter, XYZ)<br />
<br />
2. Foundedin(1950, XYZ)<br />
<br />
IE is a crucial step in data mining and has a broad variety of applications, such as web mining and natural language processing. Among all the IE tasks, two have become increasingly important, which are name entity recognition and relation extraction.<br />
<br />
The author mentioned 4 parts that are important for Information Extraction<br />
<br />
'''1. Named Entity Recognition(NER)'''<br />
<br />
This is the process of identifying real-world entity from free text, such as "Apple Inc.", "Donald Trump", "PlayStation 5" etc. Moreover, the task is to identify the category of these entities, such as "Apple Inc." is in the category of the company, "Donald Trump" is in the category of the USA president, and "PlayStation 5" is in the category of the entertainment system. <br />
<br />
'''2. Hidden Markov Model'''<br />
<br />
Since traditional probabilistic classification does not consider the predicted labels of neighbor words, we use the Hidden Markov Model when doing Information Extraction. This model is different because it considers that the label of one word depends on the previous words that appeared. The Hidden Markov model allows us to model the situation, given a sequence of labels <math> Y= (y_1, y_2, \cdots, y_n) </math>and sequence of observations <math> X= (x_1, x_2, \cdots, x_n) </math> we get<br />
<br />
<center><br />
<math><br />
y_i \sim p(y_i|y_{i-1}) \qquad x_i \sim p(x_i|x_{i-1})<br />
</math><br />
</center><br />
<br />
'''3. Conditional Random Fields'''<br />
<br />
This is a technique that is widely used in Information Extraction. The definition of it is related to graph theory. <br />
let G = (V, E) be a graph and Yv stands for the index of the vertices in G. Then (X, Y) is a conditional random field, when the random variables Yv, conditioned on X, obey Markov property with respect to the graph, and:<br />
<math>p(Y_v |X, Y_w ,w , v) = p(Y_v |X, Y_w ,w ∼ v)</math>, where w ∼ v means w and v are neighbors in G.<br />
<br />
'''4. Relation Extraction'''<br />
<br />
This is a task of finding semantic relationships between word entities in text documents, for example in a sentence such as "Seth Curry is the brother of Stephen Curry". If there is a document including these two names, the task is to identify the relationship of these two entities. There are currently numerous techniques to perform relation extraction, but the most common is to consider it a classification problem. The problem is structured as, given two entities in that occur in a sentence classify their relation into fixed relation types.<br />
<br />
== Biomedical Application ==<br />
<br />
Text mining has several applications in the domain of biomedical sciences. The explosion of academic literature in the field has made it quite hard for scientists to keep up with novel research. This is why text mining techniques are ever so important in making the knowledge digestible.<br />
<br />
The text mining techniques are able to extract meaningful information from large data by making use of biomedical ontology, which is a compilation of a common set of terms used in an area of knowledge. The Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) is the most comprehensive such resource, consisting of definitions of biomedical jargon. Several information extraction algorithms rely on the ontology to perform tasks such as Named Entity Recognition (NER) and Relation Extraction.<br />
<br />
NER involves locating and classifying biomedical entities into meaningful categories and assigning semantic representation to those entities. The NER methods can be broadly grouped into Dictionary-based, Rule-based, and Statistical approaches. NER tasks are challenging in the biomedical domain due to three key reasons: (1) There is a continuously growing volume of semantically related entities in the biomedical domain due to continuous scientific progress, so NER systems depend on dictionaries of terms which can never be complete; (2) There are often numerous names for the same concept in the biomedical domain, such as "heart attack" and "myocardial infarction"; and (3) Acronyms and abbreviations are frequently used which makes it complicated to identify the concepts these terms express.<br />
<br />
Relation extraction, on the other hand, is the process of determining relationships between the entities. This is accomplished mainly by identifying the correlation between entities through analyzing the frequency of terms, as well as rules defined by domain experts. Moreover, modern algorithms are also able to summarize large documents and answer natural language questions posed by humans.<br />
<br />
Summarization is a common biomedical text mining task that largely utilizes information extraction tasks. The idea is the automatically identify significant aspects of documents and represent them in a coherent fashion. However, evaluating summarization methods becomes very difficult since deciding whether a summary is "good" is often subjective, although there are some automatic evaluation techniques for summaries such as ROUGE (Recall-Oriented Understudy for Gisting Evaluation), which compares automatically generated summaries with those created by humans.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
This paper gave a holistic overview of the methods and applications of text mining, particularly its relevance in the biomedical domain. It highlights several popular algorithms and summarizes them along with their advantages, limitations and some potential situations where they could be used. Because of ever-growing data, for example, the very high volume of scientific literature being produced every year, the interest in this field is massive and is bound to grow in the future.<br />
<br />
== Critiques==<br />
<br />
This is a very detailed approach to introduce some different algorithms on text mining. Since many algorithms are given, it might be a good idea to compare their performances on text mining by training them on some text data and compare them to the former baselines, to see if there exists any improvement.<br />
<br />
it is a detailed summary of the techniques used in text mining. It would be more helpful if some dataset can be included for training and testing. The algorithms were grouped by different topics so that different datasets and measurements are required.<br />
<br />
It would be better for the paper to include test accuracy for testing and training sets to support text mining is a more efficient and effective algorithm compared to other techniques. Moreover, this paper mentioned Text Mining approach can be used to extract high-quality information from videos. It is to believe that extracting from videos is much more difficult than images and texts. How is it possible to retain its test accuracy at a good level for videos?<br />
<br />
Preprocessing an important step to analyze text, so it might be better to have the more details about that. For example, what types of words are usually removed and show we record the relative position of each word in the sentence. If one close related sentences were split into two sentences, how can we capture their relations?<br />
<br />
The authors could give more details on the applications of text mining in the healthcare and biomedical domain. For example, how could preprocessing, classification, clustering, and information extraction process be applied to this domain. Other than introduction of existing algorithms (e.g. NER), authors can provide more information about how they performs (with a sample dataset), what are their limitations, and comparisons among different algorithms.<br />
<br />
In the preprocessing section, it seems like the authors incorrectly describe what stemming is - stemming just removes the last few letters of a word (ex. studying -> study, studies -> studi). What the authors actually describe is lemmatization which is much more informative than stemming. The down side of lemmatization is that it takes more effort to build a lemmatizer than a stemmer and even once it is built it is slow in comparison with a stemmer.<br />
<br />
One of the challenges of text mining in the biomedical field is that a lot of patient data are still in the form of paper documents. Text mining can speed up the digitization of patient data and allow for the development of disease diagnosis algorithms. It'll be interesting to see how text mining can be integrated with healthcare AI such as the doppelganger algorithm to enhance question answering accuracy. (Cresswell et al, 2018)<br />
<br />
It might be helpful if the authors discuss more about the accuracy-wise performances of some text mining techniques, especially in the healthcare and biomedical domain, given the focus. It would be interesting if more information were provided about the level of accuracy needed in order to produce reliable and actionable information in such fields. Also, in these domains, sometimes a false negative could be more harmful than a false positive, such as a clinical misdiagnosis. It might be helpful to discuss a bit more about how to combats such issues in text mining.<br />
<br />
This is a survey paper that talks about many general aspects about text mining, without going into any specific one in detail. Overall it's interesting. My first feedback is on the "Information Retrieval" section of the paper. Hidden markov model is mentioned as one of the algorithms used for IR. Yet, hidden markov makes the strong assumption that given the current state, next state is independent of all the previous states. This is a very strong assumption to make in IR, as words in a sentence usually have a very strong connection to each other. This limitation should be discussed more extensively in the paper. Also, the overall structure of the paper seems to be a bit imbalanced. It solely talks about IR's application in biomedical sciences. Yet, IR has application in many different areas and subjects.<br />
<br />
This paper surveys through multiple methods and algorithms on test mining, more specifically, information extraction, test classification, and clustering. In the Information Extraction section, four possible methods are mentioned to deal with different examples of semantic texts. In the latest studies of machine learning, it is ubiquitous to see multiple methods or algorithms are combined together to achieve better performances. For a survey paper, it will be more interesting to see some connections between the four methods, and some insights such as how we can boost the accuracy of extracting precise information by combining 2 of the 4 methods together.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Allahyari, M., Pouriyeh, S., Assefi, M., Safaei, S., Trippe, E. D., Gutierrez, J. B., & Kochut, K. (2017). A brief survey of text mining: Classification, clustering, and extraction techniques. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.02919.<br />
<br />
Cresswell, Kathrin & Cunningham-Burley, Sarah & Sheikh, Aziz. (2018). Healthcare robotics � a qualitative exploration of key challenges and future directions (Preprint). Journal of Medical Internet Research. 20. 10.2196/10410.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Describtion_of_Text_Mining&diff=49144Describtion of Text Mining2020-12-04T09:08:52Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Yawen Wang, Danmeng Cui, Zijie Jiang, Mingkang Jiang, Haotian Ren, Haris Bin Zahid<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
This paper focuses on the different text mining techniques and the applications of text mining in the healthcare and biomedical domain. The text mining field has been popular as a result of the amount of text data that is available in different forms. The text data is bound to grow even more in 2020, indicating a 50 times growth since 2010. Text is unstructured information, which is easy for humans to construct and understand but difficult for machines. Hence, there is a need to design algorithms to effectively process this avalanche of text. To further explore the text mining field, the related text mining approaches can be considered. The different text mining approaches relate to two main methods: knowledge delivery and traditional data mining methods. <br />
<br />
The authors note that knowledge delivery methods involve the application of different steps to a specific data set to create specific patterns. Research in knowledge delivery methods has evolved over the years due to advances in hardware and software technology. On the other hand, data mining has experienced substantial development through the intersection of three fields: databases, machine learning, and statistics. As brought out by the authors, text mining approaches focus on the exploration of information from a specific text. The information explored is in the form of structured, semi-structured, and unstructured text. It is important to note that text mining covers different sets of algorithms and topics that include information retrieval. The topics and algorithms are used for analyzing different text forms.<br />
<br />
==Text Representation and Encoding ==<br />
The authors review multiple methods of preprocessing text, including 4 methods to preprocess and recognize influence and frequency of individual group of words in a document. In many text mining algorithms, one of the key components is preprocessing. Preprocessing consists of different tasks that include filtering, tokenization, stemming, and lemmatization. The first step is tokenization, where a character sequence is broken down into different words or phrases. After the breakdown, filtering is carried out to remove some words. The various word inflected forms are grouped together through lemmatization, and later, the derived roots of the derived words are obtained through stemming.<br />
<br />
'''1. Tokenization'''<br />
<br />
This process splits text into units of words of phrases known as tokens while removing unnecessary characters. Characters such as punctuation are removed and the text is split at space characters. An example of this would be converting the string "This is my string" to "This", "is", "my", "string".<br />
<br />
'''2. Filtering'''<br />
<br />
Filtering is a process by which unnecessary words or characters are removed. Often these include punctuation, prepositions, and conjugations. The resulting corpus then contains words with maximal importance in distinguishing between classes.<br />
<br />
'''3. Lemmatization'''<br />
<br />
Lemmatization is a task where convert various inflected forms of a word to a single form. However, we must specify the POS of each words, which can prone to human error. <br />
<br />
'''4. Stemming'''<br />
<br />
Stemming extracts the roots of words. It is a language dependent process. The goal of both stemming is to reduce inflectional and related (definition wise) forms of a word to a common base form. An example of this would be changing "am", "are", or "is" to "be".<br />
<br />
'''Vector Space Model'''<br />
In this section of the paper, the authors explore the different ways in which the text can be represented on a large collection of documents. One common way of representing the documents is in the form of a bag of words. The bag of words considers the occurrences of different terms.<br />
In different text mining applications, documents are ranked and represented as vectors so as to display the significance of any word. <br />
The authors note that the three basic models used are vector space, inference network, and the probabilistic models. The vector space model is used to represent documents by converting them into vectors. In the model, a variable is used to represent each model to indicate the importance of the word in the document. <br />
<br />
The weights have 2 main models used Boolean model and TF-IDF model: <br />
'''Boolean model'''<br />
terms are assignment with a positive wij if the term appears in the document. otherwise, it will be assigned a weight of 0. <br />
<br />
'''term frequency - inverse document frequency (TF-IDF)'''<br />
The words are weighted using the TF-IDF scheme computed as <br />
<br />
$$<br />
q(w)=f_d(w)*\log{\frac{|D|}{f_D(w)}}<br />
$$<br />
<br />
The frequency of each term is normalized by the inverse of document frequency, which helps distinct words with low frequency is recognized its importance. Each document is represented by a vector of term weights, <math>\omega(d) = (\omega(d, w_1), \omega(d,w_2),...,\omega(d,w_v))</math>. The similarity between two documents <math>d_1, d_2</math> is commonly measured by cosine similarity:<br />
$$<br />
S(d_1,d_2) = \cos(\theta) = \frac{d_1\cdot d_2}{\sum_{i=1}^vw^2_{1i}\cdot\sum_{i=1}^vw^2_{2i}}<br />
$$<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
== Classification ==<br />
Classification in Text Mining aims to assign predefined classes to text documents. For a set <math>\mathcal{D} = {d_1, d_2, ... d_n}</math> of documents, each <math>d_i</math> is mapped to a label <math>l_i</math> from the set <math>\mathcal{L} = {l_1, l_2, ... l_k}</math>. The goal is to find a classification model <math>f</math> such that: <math>\\</math><br />
$$<br />
f: \mathcal{D} \rightarrow \mathcal{L} \quad \quad \quad f(\mathcal{d}) = \mathcal{l}<br />
$$<br />
The author illustrates 4 different classifiers that are commonly used in text mining.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Naive Bayes Classifier''' <br />
<br />
Bayes rule is used to classify new examples and select the class that has the generated result that occurs most often. <br />
Naive Bayes Classifier models the distribution of documents in each class using a probabilistic model assuming that the distribution<br />
of different terms is independent of each other. The models commonly used in this classifier tried to find the posterior probability of a class based on the distribution and assumes that the documents generated are based on a mixture model parameterized by <math>\theta</math> and compute the likelihood of a document using the sum of probabilities over all mixture component. In addition, the Naive Bayes Classifier can help get around the curse of dimensionality, which may arise with high-dimensional data, such as text. <br />
<br />
'''2. Nearest Neighbour Classifier'''<br />
<br />
Nearest Neighbour Classifier uses distance-based measures to perform the classification. The documents which belong to the same class are more likely "similar" or close to each other based on the similarity measure. The classification of the test documents is inferred from the class labels of similar documents in the training set. K-Nearest Neighbor classification is well known to suffer from the "curse of dimensionality", as the proportional volume of each $d$-sphere surrounding each datapoint compared to the volume of the sample space shrinks exponentially in $d$. <br />
<br />
'''3. Decision Tree Classifier'''<br />
<br />
A hierarchical tree of the training instances, in which a condition on the attribute value is used to divide the data hierarchically. The decision tree recursively partitions the training data set into smaller subdivisions based on a set of tests defined at each node or branch. Each node of the tree is a test of some attribute of the training instance, and each branch descending from the node corresponds to one of the values of this attribute. The conditions on the nodes are commonly defined by the terms in the text documents.<br />
<br />
'''4. Support Vector Machines'''<br />
<br />
SVM is a form of Linear Classifiers which are models that makes a classification decision based on the value of the linear combinations of the documents features. The output of a linear predictor is defined to the <math> y=\vec{a} \cdot \vec{x} + b</math> where <math>\vec{x}</math> is the normalized document word frequency vector, <math>\vec{a}</math> is a vector of coefficient and <math>b</math> is a scalar. Support Vector Machines attempts to find a linear separators between various classes. An advantage of the SVM method is it is robust to high dimensionality.<br />
<br />
== Clustering ==<br />
Clustering has been extensively studied in the context of the text as it has a wide range of applications such as visualization and document organization.<br />
<br />
Clustering algorithms are used to group similar documents and thus aid in information retrieval. Text clustering can be in different levels of granularities, where clusters can be documents, paragraphs, sentences, or terms. Since text data has numerous distance characteristics that demand the design of text-specific algorithms for the task, using a binary vector to represent the text document is simply not enough. Here are some unique properties of text representation:<br />
<br />
1. Text representation has a large dimensionality, in which the size of the vocabulary from which the documents are drawn is massive, but a document might only contain a small number of words.<br />
<br />
2. The words in the documents are usually correlated with each other. Need to take the correlation into consideration when designing algorithms.<br />
<br />
3. The number of words differs from one another of the document. Thus the document needs to be normalized first before the clustering process.<br />
<br />
Three most commonly used text clustering algorithms are presented below.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Hierarchical Clustering algorithms''' <br />
<br />
Hierarchical Clustering algorithms builds a group of clusters that can be depicted as a hierarchy of clusters. The hierarchy can be constructed in top-down (divisive) or bottom-up (agglomeration). Hierarchical clustering algorithms are one of the Distanced-based clustering algorithms, i.e., using a similarity function to measure the closeness between text documents.<br />
<br />
In the top-down approach, the algorithm begins with one cluster which includes all the documents. we recursively split this cluster into sub-clusters.<br />
Here is an example of a Hierarchical Clustering algorithm, the data is to be clustered by the euclidean distance. This method builds the hierarchy from the individual elements by progressively merging clusters. In our example, we have six elements {a} {b} {c} {d} {e} and {f}. The first step determines which elements to merge in a cluster by taking the two closest elements, according to the chosen distance.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:418px-Hierarchical clustering simple diagram.svg.png| 300px | center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center">Figure 1: Hierarchical Clustering Raw Data</div><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:250px-Clusters.svg (1).png| 200px | center]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center">Figure 2: Hierarchical Clustering Clustered Data</div><br />
<br />
A main advantage of hierarchical clustering is that the algorithm only needs to be done once for any number of clusters (ie. if an individual wishes to use a different number of clusters than originally intended, they do not need to repeat the algorithm)<br />
<br />
'''2. k-means Clustering'''<br />
<br />
k-means clustering is a partitioning algorithm that partitions n documents in the context of text data into k clusters.<br />
<br />
Input: Document D, similarity measure S, number k of cluster<br />
Output: Set of k clusters<br />
Select randomly ''k'' datapoints as starting centroids<br />
While ''not converged'' do <br />
Assign documents to the centroids based on the closest similarity<br />
Calculate the cluster centroids for all clusters<br />
return ''k clusters''<br />
<br />
The main disadvantage of k-means clustering is that it is indeed very sensitive to the initial choice of the number of k. Also, since the function is run until clusters converges, k-means clustering tends to take longer to perform than hierarchical clustering. On the other hand, advantages of k-means clustering are that it is simple to implement, the algorithm scales well to large datasets, and the results are easily interpretable.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''3. Probabilistic Clustering and Topic Models'''<br />
<br />
Topic modeling is one of the most popular probabilistic clustering algorithms in recent studies. The main idea is to create a *probabilistic generative model* for the corpus of text documents. In topic models, documents are a mixture of topics, where each topic represents a probability distribution over words.<br />
<br />
There are two main topic models:<br />
* Probabilistic Latent Semantic Analysis (pLSA)<br />
* Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)<br />
<br />
The paper covers LDA in more detail. LDA is a state-of-the-art unsupervised algorithm for extracting topics from a collection of documents.<br />
<br />
Given <math>\mathcal{D} = \{d_1, d_2, \cdots, d_{|\mathcal{D}|}\}</math> is the corpus and <math>\mathcal{V} = \{w_1, w_2, \cdots, w_{|\mathcal{V}|}\}</math> is the vocabulary of the corpus. <br />
<br />
A topic is <math>z_j, 1 \leq j \leq K</math> is a multinomial probability distribution over <math>|\mathcal{V}|</math> words. <br />
<br />
The distribution of words in a given document is:<br />
<br />
<math>p(w_i|d) = \Sigma_{j=1}^K p(w_i|z_j)p(z_j|d)</math><br />
<br />
The LDA assumes the following generative process for the corpus of <math>\mathcal{D}</math><br />
* For each topic <math>k\in \{1,2,\cdots, K\}</math>, sample a word distribution <math>\phi_k \sim Dir(\beta)</math><br />
* For each document <math>d \in \{1,2,\cdots,D\}</math><br />
** Sample a topic distribution <math>\theta_d \sim Dir(\alpha)</math><br />
** For each word <math>w_n, n \in \{1,2,\cdots,N\}</math> in document <math>d</math><br />
*** Sample a topic <math>z_i \sim Mult(\theta_d)</math><br />
*** Sample a word <math>w_n \sim Mult(\phi_{z_i})</math><br />
<br />
In practice, LDA is often used as a module in more complicated models and has already been applied to a wide variety of domains. In addition, many variations of LDA has been created, including supervised LDA (sLDA) and hierarchical LDA (hLDA)<br />
<br />
== Information Extraction ==<br />
Information Extraction (IE) is the process of extracting useful, structured information from unstructured or semi-structured text. It automatically extracts based on our command. <br />
<br />
For example, from the sentence “XYZ company was founded by Peter in the year of 1950”, we can identify the two following relations:<br />
<br />
1. Founderof(Peter, XYZ)<br />
<br />
2. Foundedin(1950, XYZ)<br />
<br />
IE is a crucial step in data mining and has a broad variety of applications, such as web mining and natural language processing. Among all the IE tasks, two have become increasingly important, which are name entity recognition and relation extraction.<br />
<br />
The author mentioned 4 parts that are important for Information Extraction<br />
<br />
'''1. Named Entity Recognition(NER)'''<br />
<br />
This is the process of identifying real-world entity from free text, such as "Apple Inc.", "Donald Trump", "PlayStation 5" etc. Moreover, the task is to identify the category of these entities, such as "Apple Inc." is in the category of the company, "Donald Trump" is in the category of the USA president, and "PlayStation 5" is in the category of the entertainment system. <br />
<br />
'''2. Hidden Markov Model'''<br />
<br />
Since traditional probabilistic classification does not consider the predicted labels of neighbor words, we use the Hidden Markov Model when doing Information Extraction. This model is different because it considers that the label of one word depends on the previous words that appeared. The Hidden Markov model allows us to model the situation, given a sequence of labels <math> Y= (y_1, y_2, \cdots, y_n) </math>and sequence of observations <math> X= (x_1, x_2, \cdots, x_n) </math> we get<br />
<br />
<center><br />
<math><br />
y_i \sim p(y_i|y_{i-1}) \qquad x_i \sim p(x_i|x_{i-1})<br />
</math><br />
</center><br />
<br />
'''3. Conditional Random Fields'''<br />
<br />
This is a technique that is widely used in Information Extraction. The definition of it is related to graph theory. <br />
let G = (V, E) be a graph and Yv stands for the index of the vertices in G. Then (X, Y) is a conditional random field, when the random variables Yv, conditioned on X, obey Markov property with respect to the graph, and:<br />
<math>p(Y_v |X, Y_w ,w , v) = p(Y_v |X, Y_w ,w ∼ v)</math>, where w ∼ v means w and v are neighbors in G.<br />
<br />
'''4. Relation Extraction'''<br />
<br />
This is a task of finding semantic relationships between word entities in text documents, for example in a sentence such as "Seth Curry is the brother of Stephen Curry". If there is a document including these two names, the task is to identify the relationship of these two entities. There are currently numerous techniques to perform relation extraction, but the most common is to consider it a classification problem. The problem is structured as, given two entities in that occur in a sentence classify their relation into fixed relation types.<br />
<br />
== Biomedical Application ==<br />
<br />
Text mining has several applications in the domain of biomedical sciences. The explosion of academic literature in the field has made it quite hard for scientists to keep up with novel research. This is why text mining techniques are ever so important in making the knowledge digestible.<br />
<br />
The text mining techniques are able to extract meaningful information from large data by making use of biomedical ontology, which is a compilation of a common set of terms used in an area of knowledge. The Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) is the most comprehensive such resource, consisting of definitions of biomedical jargon. Several information extraction algorithms rely on the ontology to perform tasks such as Named Entity Recognition (NER) and Relation Extraction.<br />
<br />
NER involves locating and classifying biomedical entities into meaningful categories and assigning semantic representation to those entities. The NER methods can be broadly grouped into Dictionary-based, Rule-based, and Statistical approaches. NER tasks are challenging in the biomedical domain due to three key reasons: (1) There is a continuously growing volume of semantically related entities in the biomedical domain due to continuous scientific progress, so NER systems depend on dictionaries of terms which can never be complete; (2) There are often numerous names for the same concept in the biomedical domain, such as "heart attack" and "myocardial infarction"; and (3) Acronyms and abbreviations are frequently used which makes it complicated to identify the concepts these terms express.<br />
<br />
Relation extraction, on the other hand, is the process of determining relationships between the entities. This is accomplished mainly by identifying the correlation between entities through analyzing the frequency of terms, as well as rules defined by domain experts. Moreover, modern algorithms are also able to summarize large documents and answer natural language questions posed by humans.<br />
<br />
Summarization is a common biomedical text mining task that largely utilizes information extraction tasks. The idea is the automatically identify significant aspects of documents and represent them in a coherent fashion. However, evaluating summarization methods becomes very difficult since deciding whether a summary is "good" is often subjective, although there are some automatic evaluation techniques for summaries such as ROUGE (Recall-Oriented Understudy for Gisting Evaluation), which compares automatically generated summaries with those created by humans.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
This paper gave a holistic overview of the methods and applications of text mining, particularly its relevance in the biomedical domain. It highlights several popular algorithms and summarizes them along with their advantages, limitations and some potential situations where they could be used. Because of ever-growing data, for example, the very high volume of scientific literature being produced every year, the interest in this field is massive and is bound to grow in the future.<br />
<br />
== Critiques==<br />
<br />
This is a very detailed approach to introduce some different algorithms on text mining. Since many algorithms are given, it might be a good idea to compare their performances on text mining by training them on some text data and compare them to the former baselines, to see if there exists any improvement.<br />
<br />
it is a detailed summary of the techniques used in text mining. It would be more helpful if some dataset can be included for training and testing. The algorithms were grouped by different topics so that different datasets and measurements are required.<br />
<br />
It would be better for the paper to include test accuracy for testing and training sets to support text mining is a more efficient and effective algorithm compared to other techniques. Moreover, this paper mentioned Text Mining approach can be used to extract high-quality information from videos. It is to believe that extracting from videos is much more difficult than images and texts. How is it possible to retain its test accuracy at a good level for videos?<br />
<br />
Preprocessing an important step to analyze text, so it might be better to have the more details about that. For example, what types of words are usually removed and show we record the relative position of each word in the sentence. If one close related sentences were split into two sentences, how can we capture their relations?<br />
<br />
The authors could give more details on the applications of text mining in the healthcare and biomedical domain. For example, how could preprocessing, classification, clustering, and information extraction process be applied to this domain. Other than introduction of existing algorithms (e.g. NER), authors can provide more information about how they performs (with a sample dataset), what are their limitations, and comparisons among different algorithms.<br />
<br />
In the preprocessing section, it seems like the authors incorrectly describe what stemming is - stemming just removes the last few letters of a word (ex. studying -> study, studies -> studi). What the authors actually describe is lemmatization which is much more informative than stemming. The down side of lemmatization is that it takes more effort to build a lemmatizer than a stemmer and even once it is built it is slow in comparison with a stemmer.<br />
<br />
One of the challenges of text mining in the biomedical field is that a lot of patient data are still in the form of paper documents. Text mining can speed up the digitization of patient data and allow for the development of disease diagnosis algorithms. It'll be interesting to see how text mining can be integrated with healthcare AI such as the doppelganger algorithm to enhance question answering accuracy. (Cresswell et al, 2018)<br />
<br />
It might be helpful if the authors discuss more about the accuracy-wise performances of some text mining techniques, especially in the healthcare and biomedical domain, given the focus. It would be interesting if more information were provided about the level of accuracy needed in order to produce reliable and actionable information in such fields. Also, in these domains, sometimes a false negative could be more harmful than a false positive, such as a clinical misdiagnosis. It might be helpful to discuss a bit more about how to combats such issues in text mining.<br />
<br />
This is a survey paper that talks about many general aspects about text mining, without going into any specific one in detail. Overall it's interesting. My first feedback is on the "Information Retrieval" section of the paper. Hidden markov model is mentioned as one of the algorithms used for IR. Yet, hidden markov makes the strong assumption that given the current state, next state is independent of all the previous states. This is a very strong assumption to make in IR, as words in a sentence usually have a very strong connection to each other. This limitation should be discussed more extensively in the paper. Also, the overall structure of the paper seems to be a bit imbalanced. It solely talks about IR's application in biomedical sciences. Yet, IR has application in many different areas and subjects.<br />
<br />
This paper surveys through multiple methods and algorithms on test mining, more specifically, information extraction, test classification, and clustering. In the Information Extraction section, four possible methods are mentioned to deal with different examples of semantic texts. In the latest studies of machine learning, it is ubiquitous to see multiple methods or algorithms are combined together to achieve better performances. Since it is a survey paper, it will be more interesting to see some connections between the four methods, and some insights such as how we can boost the accuracy of extracting precise information by combining 2 of the 4 methods together.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Allahyari, M., Pouriyeh, S., Assefi, M., Safaei, S., Trippe, E. D., Gutierrez, J. B., & Kochut, K. (2017). A brief survey of text mining: Classification, clustering, and extraction techniques. arXiv preprint arXiv:1707.02919.<br />
<br />
Cresswell, Kathrin & Cunningham-Burley, Sarah & Sheikh, Aziz. (2018). Healthcare robotics � a qualitative exploration of key challenges and future directions (Preprint). Journal of Medical Internet Research. 20. 10.2196/10410.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Improving_neural_networks_by_preventing_co-adaption_of_feature_detectors&diff=49122Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaption of feature detectors2020-12-04T07:39:41Z<p>J632liu: /* MNIST */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by ==<br />
Stan Lee, Seokho Lim, Kyle Jung, Dae Hyun Kim<br />
<br />
= Improvement Intro =<br />
'''Drop Out Model'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, Hinton et al. introduce a novel way to improve neural networks’ performance, particularly in the case that a large feedforward neural network is trained on a small training set, which causes poor performance and leads to “overfitting” problem. This problem can be reduced by randomly omitting half of the feature detectors on each training case. In fact, By omitting neurons in hidden layers with a probability of 0.5, each hidden unit is prevented from relying on other hidden units being present during training. Hence there are fewer co-adaptations among them on the training data. Called “dropout,” this process is also an efficient alternative to train many separate networks and average their predictions on the test set. <br />
<br />
The intuition for dropout is that if neurons are randomly dropped during training, they can no longer rely on their neighbours, thus allowing each neutron to become more robust. Another interpretation is that dropout is similar to training an ensemble of models, since each epoch with randomly dropped neurons can be viewed as its own model. <br />
<br />
They used the standard, stochastic gradient descent algorithm and separated training data into mini-batches. An upper bound was set on the L2 norm of incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron, which was normalized if its size exceeds the bound. They found that using a constraint, instead of a penalty, forced model to do a more thorough search of the weight-space, when coupled with the very large learning rate that decays during training.<br />
<br />
'''Mean Network'''<br />
<br />
Their dropout models included all of the hidden neurons, and their outgoing weights were halved to account for the chances of omission. This is called an 'Mean Network'. This is similar to taking the geometric mean of the probability distribution predicted by all <math>2^N</math> networks. Due to this cumulative addition, the correct answers will have higher log probability than an individual dropout network, which also lead to a lower square error of the network. <br />
<br />
<br />
The models were shown to result in lower test error rates on several datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= MNIST =<br />
The MNIST dataset contains 70,000 digit images of size 28 x 28. To see the impact of dropout, they used 4 different neural networks (784-800-800-10, 784-1200-1200-10, 784-2000-2000-10, 784-1200-1200-1200-10), with the same dropout rates, 50%, for hidden neurons and 20% for visible neurons. Stochastic gradient descent was used with mini-batches of size 100 and a cross-entropy objective function as the loss function. Weights were updated after each minibatch, and training was done for 3000 epochs. An exponentially decaying learning rate <math>\epsilon</math> was used, with the initial value set as 10.0, and it was multiplied by the decaying factor <math>f</math> = 0.998 at the end of each epoch. At each hidden layer, the incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron was set an upper bound of its length, <math>l</math>, and they found from cross-validation that the results were the best when <math>l</math> = 15. Initial weights values were pooled from a normal distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation of 0.01. To update weights, an additional variable, ''p'', called momentum, was used to accelerate learning. The initial value of <math>p</math> was 0.5, and it increased linearly to the final value 0.99 during the first 500 epochs, remaining unchanged after. Also, when updating weights, the learning rate was multiplied by <math>1 – p</math>. <math>L</math> denotes the gradient of loss function.<br />
<br />
[[File:weights_mnist2.png|center|400px]]<br />
<br />
The best published result for a standard feedforward neural network was 160 errors. This was reduced to about 130 errors with 0.5 dropout and different L2 constraints for each hidden unit input weight. By omitting a random 20% of the input pixels in addition to the aforementioned changes, the number of errors was further reduced to 110. The following figure visualizes the result.<br />
[[File:mnist_figure.png|center|500px]]<br />
A publicly available pre-trained deep belief net resulted in 118 errors, and it was reduced to 92 errors when the model was fine-tuned with dropout. Another publicly available model was a deep Boltzmann machine, and it resulted in 103, 97, 94, 93 and 88 when the model was fine-tuned using standard backpropagation and was unrolled. They were reduced to 83, 79, 78, 78, and 77 when the model was fine-tuned with dropout – the mean of 79 errors was a record for models that do not use prior knowledge or enhanced training sets.<br />
<br />
= TIMIT = <br />
<br />
TIMIT dataset includes voice samples of 630 American English speakers varying across 8 different dialects. It is often used to evaluate the performance of automatic speech recognition systems. Using Kaldi, the dataset was pre-processed to extract input features in the form of log filter bank responses.<br />
<br />
=== Pre-training and Training ===<br />
<br />
For pretraining, they pretrained their neural network with a deep belief network and the first layer was built using Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM). Initializing visible biases with zero, weights were sampled from random numbers that followed normal distribution <math>N(0, 0.01)</math>. Each visible neuron’s variance was set to 1.0 and remained unchanged.<br />
<br />
Minimizing Contrastive Divergence (CD) was used to facilitate learning. Since momentum is used to speed up learning, it was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly to 0.9 over 20 epochs. The average gradient had 0.001 of a learning rate which was then multiplied by <math>(1-momentum)</math> and L2 weight decay was set to 0.001. After setting up the hyperparameters, the model was done training after 100 epochs. Binary RBMs were used for training all subsequent layers with a learning rate of 0.01. Then, <math>p</math> was set as the mean activation of a neuron in the data set and the visible bias of each neuron was initialized to <math>log(p/(1 − p))</math>. Training each layer with 50 epochs, all remaining hyper-parameters were the same as those for the Gaussian RBM.<br />
<br />
=== Dropout tuning ===<br />
<br />
The initial weights were set in a neural network from the pretrained RBMs. To finetune the network with dropout-backpropagation, momentum was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly up to 0.9 over 10 epochs. The model had a small constant learning rate of 1.0 and it was used to apply to the average gradient on a minibatch. The model also retained all other hyperparameters the same as the model from MNIST dropout finetuning. The model required approximately 200 epochs to converge. For comparison purpose, they also finetuned the same network with standard backpropagation with a learning rate of 0.1 with the same hyperparameters.<br />
<br />
=== Classification Test and Performance ===<br />
<br />
A Neural network was constructed to output the classification error rate on the test set of TIMIT dataset. They have built the neural network with four fully-connected hidden layers with 4000 neurons per layer. The output layer distinguishes distinct classes from 185 softmax output neurons that are merged into 39 classes. After constructing the neural network, 21 adjacent frames with an advance of 10ms per frame was given as an input.<br />
<br />
Comparing the performance of dropout with standard backpropagation on several network architectures and input representations, dropout consistently achieved lower error and cross-entropy. Results showed that it significantly controls overfitting, making the method robust to choices of network architecture. It also allowed much larger nets to be trained and removed the need for early stopping. Thus, neural network architectures with dropout are not very sensitive to the choice of learning rate and momentum.<br />
<br />
= Reuters Corpus Volume =<br />
Reuters Corpus Volume I archives 804,414 news documents that belong to 103 topics. Under four major themes - corporate/industrial, economics, government/social, and markets – they belonged to 63 classes. After removing 11 classes with no data and one class with insufficient data, they are left with 50 classes and 402,738 documents. The documents were divided into training and test sets equally and randomly, with each document representing the 2000 most frequent words in the dataset, excluding stopwords.<br />
<br />
They trained two neural networks, with size 2000-2000-1000-50, one using dropout and backpropagation, and the other using standard backpropagation. The training hyperparameters are the same as that in MNIST, but training was done for 500 epochs.<br />
<br />
In the following figure, we see the significant improvements by the model with dropout in the test set error. On the right side, we see that learning with dropout also proceeds smoother. <br />
<br />
[[File:reuters_figure.png|700px|center]]<br />
<br />
= CNN =<br />
<br />
Feed-forward neural networks consist of several layers of neurons where each neuron in a layer applies a linear filter to the input image data and is passed on to the neurons in the next layer. When calculating the neuron’s output, scalar bias a.k.a weights is applied to the filter with nonlinear activation function as parameters of the network that are learned by training data. [[File:cnnbigpicture.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Overview of Convolutional Neural Network]] There are several differences between Convolutional Neural networks and ordinary neural networks. The figure above gives a visual representation of a Convolutional Neural Network. First, CNN’s neurons are organized topographically into a bank and laid out on a 2D grid, so it reflects the organization of dimensions of the input data. Secondly, neurons in CNN apply filters which are local, and which are centered at the neuron’s location in the topographic organization. Meaning that useful metrics or clues to identify the object in an input image which can be found by examining local neighborhoods of the image. Next, all neurons in a bank apply the same filter at different locations in the input image. When looking at the image example, green is an input to one neuron bank, yellow is filter bank, and pink is the output of one neuron bank (convolved feature). A bank of neurons in a CNN applies a convolution operation, aka filters, to its input where a single layer in a CNN typically has multiple banks of neurons, each performing a convolution with a different filter. The resulting neuron banks become distinct input channels into the next layer. The whole process reduces the net’s representational capacity, but also reduces the capacity to overfit.<br />
[[File:bankofneurons.gif|thumb|upright=3|center|alt=text|Figure: Bank of neurons]]<br />
<br />
=== Pooling ===<br />
<br />
Pooling layer summarizes the activities of local patches of neurons in the convolutional layer by subsampling the output of a convolutional layer. Pooling is useful for extracting dominant features, to decrease the computational power required to process the data through dimensionality reduction. The procedure of pooling goes on like this; output from convolutional layers is divided into sections called pooling units and they are laid out topographically, connected to a local neighborhood of other pooling units from the same convolutional output. Then, each pooling unit is computed with some function which could be maximum and average. Maximum pooling returns the maximum value from the section of the image covered by the pooling unit while average pooling returns the average of all the values inside the pooling unit (see example). In result, there are fewer total pooling units than convolutional unit outputs from the previous layer, this is due to larger spacing between pixels on pooling layers. Using the max-pooling function reduces the effect of outliers and improves generalization. Other than that, overlapping pooling makes this spacing between pixels smaller than the size of the neighborhood that the pooling units summarize (This spacing is usually referred as the stride between pooling units). With this variant, pooling layer can produce a coarse coding of the outputs which helps generalization. <br />
[[File:maxandavgpooling.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Max pooling and Average pooling]]<br />
<br />
=== Local Response Normalization === <br />
<br />
This network includes local response normalization layers which are implemented in lateral form and used on neurons with unbounded activations and permits the detection of high-frequency features with a big neuron response. This regularizer encourages competition among neurons belonging to different banks. Normalization is done by dividing the activity of a neuron in bank <math>i</math> at position <math>(x,y)</math> by the equation:<br />
[[File:local response norm.png|upright=2|center|]] where the sum runs over <math>N</math> ‘adjacent’ banks of neurons at the same position as in the topographic organization of neuron bank. The constants, <math>N</math>, <math>alpha</math> and <math>betas</math> are hyper-parameters whose values are determined using a validation set. This technique is replaced by better techniques such as the combination of dropout and regularization methods (<math>L1</math> and <math>L2</math>)<br />
<br />
=== Neuron nonlinearities ===<br />
<br />
All of the neurons for this model use the max-with-zero nonlinearity where output within a neuron is computed as <math> a^{i}_{x,y} = max(0, z^i_{x,y})</math> where <math> z^i_{x,y} </math> is the total input to the neuron. The reason they use nonlinearity is because it has several advantages over traditional saturating neuron models, such as significant reduction in training time required to reach a certain error rate. Another advantage is that nonlinearity reduces the need for contrast-normalization and data pre-processing since neurons do not saturate- meaning activities simply scale up little by little with usually large input values. For this model’s only pre-processing step, they subtract the mean activity from each pixel and the result is a centered data.<br />
<br />
=== Objective function ===<br />
<br />
The objective function of their network maximizes the multinomial logistic regression objective which is the same as minimizing the average cross-entropy across training cases between the true label and the model’s predicted label.<br />
<br />
=== Weight Initialization === <br />
<br />
It’s important to note that if a neuron always receives a negative value during training, it will not learn because its output is uniformly zero under the max-with-zero nonlinearity. Hence, the weights in their model were sampled from a zero-mean normal distribution with a high enough variance. High variance in weights will set a certain number of neurons with positive values for learning to happen, and in practice, it’s necessary to try out several candidates for variances until a working initialization is found. In their experiment, setting a positive constant, or 1, as biases of the neurons in the hidden layers was helpful in finding it.<br />
<br />
=== Training ===<br />
<br />
In this model, a batch size of 128 samples and momentum of 0.9, we train our model using stochastic gradient descent. The update rule for weight <math>w</math> is $$ v_{i+1} = 0.9v_i + \epsilon <\frac{dE}{dw_i}> i$$ $$w_{i+1} = w_i + v_{i+1} $$ where <math>i</math> is the iteration index, <math>v</math> is a momentum variable, <math>\epsilon</math> is the learning rate and <math>\frac{dE}{dw}</math> is the average over the <math>i</math>th batch of the derivative of the objective with respect to <math>w_i</math>. The whole training process on CIFAR-10 takes roughly 90 minutes and ImageNet takes 4 days with dropout and two days without.<br />
<br />
=== Learning ===<br />
To determine the learning rate for the network, it is a must to start with an equal learning rate for each layer which produces the largest reduction in the objective function with power of ten. Usually, it is in the order of <math>10^{-2}</math> or <math>10^{-3}</math>. In this case, they reduce the learning rate twice by a factor of ten before termination of training.<br />
<br />
= CIFAR-10 =<br />
<br />
=== CIFAR-10 Dataset ===<br />
<br />
Removing incorrect labels, The CIFAR-10 dataset is a subset of the Tiny Images dataset with 10 classes. It contains 5000 training images and 1000 testing images for each class. The dataset has 32 x 32 color images searched from the web and the images are labeled with the noun used to search the image.<br />
<br />
[[File:CIFAR-10.png|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure 4: CIFAR-10 Sample Dataset]]<br />
<br />
=== Models for CIFAR-10 ===<br />
<br />
Two models, one with dropout and one without dropout, were built to test the performance of dropout on CIFAR-10. All models have CNN with three convolutional layers each with a pooling layer. All of the pooling payers use a stride=2 and summarize a 3*3 neighborhood. The max-pooling method is performed by the pooling layer which follows the first convolutional layer, and the average-pooling method is performed by remaining 2 pooling layers. The first and second pooling layers with <math>N = 9, α = 0.001</math>, and <math>β = 0.75</math> are followed by response normalization layers. A ten-unit softmax layer, which is used to output a probability distribution over class labels, is connected with the upper-most pooling layer. Using filter size of 5×5, all convolutional layers have 64 filter banks.<br />
<br />
Additional changes were made with the model with dropout. The model with dropout enables us to use more parameters because dropout forces a strong regularization on the network. Thus, a fourth weight layer is added to take the input from the previous pooling layer. This fourth weight layer is locally connected, but not convolutional, and contains 16 banks of filters of size 3 × 3 with 50% dropout. Lastly, the softmax layer takes its input from this fourth weight layer.<br />
<br />
Thus, with a neural network with 3 convolutional hidden layers with 3 max-pooling layers, the classification error achieved 16.6% to beat 18.5% from the best published error rate without using transformed data. The model with one additional locally-connected layer and dropout at the last hidden layer produced the error rate of 15.6%.<br />
<br />
= ImageNet =<br />
<br />
===ImageNet Dataset===<br />
<br />
ImageNet is a dataset of millions of high-resolution images, and they are labeled among 1000 different categories. The data were collected from the web and manually labeled using MTerk tool, which is a crowd-sourcing tool provided by Amazon.<br />
Because this dataset has millions of labeled images in thousands of categories, it is very difficult to have perfect accuracy on this dataset even for humans because the ImageNet images may contain multiple objects and there are a large number of object classes. ImageNet and CIFAR-10 are very similar, but the scale of ImageNet is about 20 times bigger (1,300,000 vs 60,000). The size of ImageNet is about 1.3 million training images, 50,000 validation images, and 150,000 testing images. They used resized images of 256 x 256 pixels for their experiments.<br />
<br />
'''An ambiguous example to classify:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet1.png|200px|center]]<br />
<br />
When this paper was written, the best score on this dataset was the error rate of 45.7% by High-dimensional signature compression for large-scale image classification (J. Sanchez, F. Perronnin, CVPR11 (2011)). The authors of this paper could achieve a comparable performance of 48.6% error rate using a single neural network with five convolutional hidden layers with a max-pooling layer in between, followed by two globally connected layers and a final 1000-way softmax layer. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
'''ImageNet Dataset:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet2.png|400px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Models for ImageNet===<br />
<br />
They mostly focused on the model with dropout because the one without dropout had a similar approach, but there was a serious issue with overfitting. They used a convolutional neural network trained by 224×224 patches randomly extracted from the 256 × 256 images. This could reduce the network’s capacity to overfit the training data and helped generalization as a form of data augmentation. The method of averaging the prediction of the net on ten 224 × 224 patches of the 256 × 256 input image was used for testing their model patched at the center, four corners, and their horizontal reflections. To maximize the performance on the validation set, this complicated network architecture was used and it was found that dropout was very effective. Also, it was demonstrated that using non-convolutional higher layers with the number of parameters worked well with dropout, but it had a negative impact to the performance without dropout.<br />
<br />
The network contains seven weight layers. The first five are convolutional, and the last two are globally-connected. Max-pooling layers follow the layer number 1,2, and 5. And then, the output of the last globally-connected layer was fed to a 1000-way softmax output layers. Using this architecture, the authors achieved the error rate of 48.6%. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:modelh2.png|700px|center]] <br />
<br />
[[File:layer2.png|600px|center]]<br />
<br />
Like the previous datasets, such as the MNIST, TIMIT, Reuters, and CIFAR-10, we also see a significant improvement for the ImageNet dataset. Including complicated architectures like this one, introducing dropout generalizes models better and gives lower test error rates.<br />
<br />
= Conclusion =<br />
<br />
The authors have shown a consistent improvement by the models trained with dropout in classifying objects in the following datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume I; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= Critiques =<br />
It is a very brilliant idea to dropout half of the neurons to reduce co-adaptations. It is mentioned that for fully connected layers, dropout in all hidden layers works better than dropout in only one hidden layer. There is another paper Dropout: A Simple Way to Prevent Neural Networks from<br />
Overfitting[https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf] gives a more detailed explanation.<br />
<br />
It will be interesting to see how this paper could be used to prevent overfitting of LSTMs.<br />
<br />
Firstly, it is a very interested topic of classification by "dropout" CNN method(omitting neurons in hidden layers). If the author can briefly explain the advantages of this method in processing image data in theory, it will be easier for readers to understand. Also, how to deal with overfitting issue would be valuable.<br />
<br />
The authors mention that they tried various dropout probabilities and that the majority of them improved the model's generalization performance, but that more extreme probabilities tended to be worse which is why a dropout rate of 50% was used in the paper. The authors further develop this point to mention that the method can be improved by adapting individual dropout probabilities of each hidden or input unit using validation tests. This would be an interesting area to further develop and explore, as using a hardcoded 50% dropout for all layers might not be the optimal choice for all CNN applications. It would have been interesting to see the results of their investigations of differing dropout rates.<br />
<br />
The authors don't explain that during training, at each layer that we apply dropout, the values must be scaled by 1/p where p is dropout rate - this way the expected value of the layers is the same in both train and test time. They may have considered another solution for this discrepancy at the time (it is an old paper) but it doesn't seem like any solution was presented here. <br />
<br />
Despite the advantages of using dropout to prevent overfitting and reducing errors in testing, the authors did not discuss much about the effects on the length of training time. In another [https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf paper] published a few years later by the same authors, there was more discussion about this. It appears that dropout increases training time by 2-3 times compared to a standard NN with the same architecture, which is a drawback that might be worth mentioning.<br />
<br />
Dropout layers prevent overfitting by randomly dropout a fraction of the neurons specified in each layer. In fact, the neurons to be dropped out in each layer are randomly selected. Therefore, it might be the case that some important features in the dropout layer are discarded, which leads to a sudden drop in performance. Although this barely happens, and CNN with dropout rates roughly 50% in each layer will lead to generally good performance, some future improvements is still possible if we are able to select dropout neurons cleverly.<br />
<br />
== Reference ==<br />
[1] N. Srivastave, "Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting", The Journal of Machine Learning Research, Jan 2014.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Improving_neural_networks_by_preventing_co-adaption_of_feature_detectors&diff=49120Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaption of feature detectors2020-12-04T07:37:43Z<p>J632liu: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by ==<br />
Stan Lee, Seokho Lim, Kyle Jung, Dae Hyun Kim<br />
<br />
= Improvement Intro =<br />
'''Drop Out Model'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, Hinton et al. introduce a novel way to improve neural networks’ performance, particularly in the case that a large feedforward neural network is trained on a small training set, which causes poor performance and leads to “overfitting” problem. This problem can be reduced by randomly omitting half of the feature detectors on each training case. In fact, By omitting neurons in hidden layers with a probability of 0.5, each hidden unit is prevented from relying on other hidden units being present during training. Hence there are fewer co-adaptations among them on the training data. Called “dropout,” this process is also an efficient alternative to train many separate networks and average their predictions on the test set. <br />
<br />
The intuition for dropout is that if neurons are randomly dropped during training, they can no longer rely on their neighbours, thus allowing each neutron to become more robust. Another interpretation is that dropout is similar to training an ensemble of models, since each epoch with randomly dropped neurons can be viewed as its own model. <br />
<br />
They used the standard, stochastic gradient descent algorithm and separated training data into mini-batches. An upper bound was set on the L2 norm of incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron, which was normalized if its size exceeds the bound. They found that using a constraint, instead of a penalty, forced model to do a more thorough search of the weight-space, when coupled with the very large learning rate that decays during training.<br />
<br />
'''Mean Network'''<br />
<br />
Their dropout models included all of the hidden neurons, and their outgoing weights were halved to account for the chances of omission. This is called an 'Mean Network'. This is similar to taking the geometric mean of the probability distribution predicted by all <math>2^N</math> networks. Due to this cumulative addition, the correct answers will have higher log probability than an individual dropout network, which also lead to a lower square error of the network. <br />
<br />
<br />
The models were shown to result in lower test error rates on several datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= MNIST =<br />
The MNIST dataset contains 70,000 digit images of size 28 x 28. To see the impact of dropout, they used 4 different neural networks (784-800-800-10, 784-1200-1200-10, 784-2000-2000-10, 784-1200-1200-1200-10), using the same dropout rates as 50% for hidden neurons and 20% for visible neurons. Stochastic gradient descent was used with mini-batches of size 100 and a cross-entropy objective function as the loss function. Weights were updated after each minibatch, and training was done for 3000 epochs. An exponentially decaying learning rate <math>\epsilon</math> was used, with the initial value set as 10.0, and it was multiplied by the decaying factor <math>f</math> = 0.998 at the end of each epoch. At each hidden layer, the incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron was set an upper bound of its length, <math>l</math>, and they found from cross-validation that the results were the best when <math>l</math> = 15. Initial weights values were pooled from a normal distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation of 0.01. To update weights, an additional variable, ''p'', called momentum, was used to accelerate learning. The initial value of <math>p</math> was 0.5, and it increased linearly to the final value 0.99 during the first 500 epochs, remaining unchanged after. Also, when updating weights, the learning rate was multiplied by <math>1 – p</math>. <math>L</math> denotes the gradient of loss function.<br />
<br />
[[File:weights_mnist2.png|center|400px]]<br />
<br />
The best published result for a standard feedforward neural network was 160 errors. This was reduced to about 130 errors with 0.5 dropout and different L2 constraints for each hidden unit input weight. By omitting a random 20% of the input pixels in addition to the aforementioned changes, the number of errors was further reduced to 110. The following figure visualizes the result.<br />
[[File:mnist_figure.png|center|500px]]<br />
A publicly available pre-trained deep belief net resulted in 118 errors, and it was reduced to 92 errors when the model was fine-tuned with dropout. Another publicly available model was a deep Boltzmann machine, and it resulted in 103, 97, 94, 93 and 88 when the model was fine-tuned using standard backpropagation and was unrolled. They were reduced to 83, 79, 78, 78, and 77 when the model was fine-tuned with dropout – the mean of 79 errors was a record for models that do not use prior knowledge or enhanced training sets.<br />
<br />
= TIMIT = <br />
<br />
TIMIT dataset includes voice samples of 630 American English speakers varying across 8 different dialects. It is often used to evaluate the performance of automatic speech recognition systems. Using Kaldi, the dataset was pre-processed to extract input features in the form of log filter bank responses.<br />
<br />
=== Pre-training and Training ===<br />
<br />
For pretraining, they pretrained their neural network with a deep belief network and the first layer was built using Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM). Initializing visible biases with zero, weights were sampled from random numbers that followed normal distribution <math>N(0, 0.01)</math>. Each visible neuron’s variance was set to 1.0 and remained unchanged.<br />
<br />
Minimizing Contrastive Divergence (CD) was used to facilitate learning. Since momentum is used to speed up learning, it was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly to 0.9 over 20 epochs. The average gradient had 0.001 of a learning rate which was then multiplied by <math>(1-momentum)</math> and L2 weight decay was set to 0.001. After setting up the hyperparameters, the model was done training after 100 epochs. Binary RBMs were used for training all subsequent layers with a learning rate of 0.01. Then, <math>p</math> was set as the mean activation of a neuron in the data set and the visible bias of each neuron was initialized to <math>log(p/(1 − p))</math>. Training each layer with 50 epochs, all remaining hyper-parameters were the same as those for the Gaussian RBM.<br />
<br />
=== Dropout tuning ===<br />
<br />
The initial weights were set in a neural network from the pretrained RBMs. To finetune the network with dropout-backpropagation, momentum was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly up to 0.9 over 10 epochs. The model had a small constant learning rate of 1.0 and it was used to apply to the average gradient on a minibatch. The model also retained all other hyperparameters the same as the model from MNIST dropout finetuning. The model required approximately 200 epochs to converge. For comparison purpose, they also finetuned the same network with standard backpropagation with a learning rate of 0.1 with the same hyperparameters.<br />
<br />
=== Classification Test and Performance ===<br />
<br />
A Neural network was constructed to output the classification error rate on the test set of TIMIT dataset. They have built the neural network with four fully-connected hidden layers with 4000 neurons per layer. The output layer distinguishes distinct classes from 185 softmax output neurons that are merged into 39 classes. After constructing the neural network, 21 adjacent frames with an advance of 10ms per frame was given as an input.<br />
<br />
Comparing the performance of dropout with standard backpropagation on several network architectures and input representations, dropout consistently achieved lower error and cross-entropy. Results showed that it significantly controls overfitting, making the method robust to choices of network architecture. It also allowed much larger nets to be trained and removed the need for early stopping. Thus, neural network architectures with dropout are not very sensitive to the choice of learning rate and momentum.<br />
<br />
= Reuters Corpus Volume =<br />
Reuters Corpus Volume I archives 804,414 news documents that belong to 103 topics. Under four major themes - corporate/industrial, economics, government/social, and markets – they belonged to 63 classes. After removing 11 classes with no data and one class with insufficient data, they are left with 50 classes and 402,738 documents. The documents were divided into training and test sets equally and randomly, with each document representing the 2000 most frequent words in the dataset, excluding stopwords.<br />
<br />
They trained two neural networks, with size 2000-2000-1000-50, one using dropout and backpropagation, and the other using standard backpropagation. The training hyperparameters are the same as that in MNIST, but training was done for 500 epochs.<br />
<br />
In the following figure, we see the significant improvements by the model with dropout in the test set error. On the right side, we see that learning with dropout also proceeds smoother. <br />
<br />
[[File:reuters_figure.png|700px|center]]<br />
<br />
= CNN =<br />
<br />
Feed-forward neural networks consist of several layers of neurons where each neuron in a layer applies a linear filter to the input image data and is passed on to the neurons in the next layer. When calculating the neuron’s output, scalar bias a.k.a weights is applied to the filter with nonlinear activation function as parameters of the network that are learned by training data. [[File:cnnbigpicture.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Overview of Convolutional Neural Network]] There are several differences between Convolutional Neural networks and ordinary neural networks. The figure above gives a visual representation of a Convolutional Neural Network. First, CNN’s neurons are organized topographically into a bank and laid out on a 2D grid, so it reflects the organization of dimensions of the input data. Secondly, neurons in CNN apply filters which are local, and which are centered at the neuron’s location in the topographic organization. Meaning that useful metrics or clues to identify the object in an input image which can be found by examining local neighborhoods of the image. Next, all neurons in a bank apply the same filter at different locations in the input image. When looking at the image example, green is an input to one neuron bank, yellow is filter bank, and pink is the output of one neuron bank (convolved feature). A bank of neurons in a CNN applies a convolution operation, aka filters, to its input where a single layer in a CNN typically has multiple banks of neurons, each performing a convolution with a different filter. The resulting neuron banks become distinct input channels into the next layer. The whole process reduces the net’s representational capacity, but also reduces the capacity to overfit.<br />
[[File:bankofneurons.gif|thumb|upright=3|center|alt=text|Figure: Bank of neurons]]<br />
<br />
=== Pooling ===<br />
<br />
Pooling layer summarizes the activities of local patches of neurons in the convolutional layer by subsampling the output of a convolutional layer. Pooling is useful for extracting dominant features, to decrease the computational power required to process the data through dimensionality reduction. The procedure of pooling goes on like this; output from convolutional layers is divided into sections called pooling units and they are laid out topographically, connected to a local neighborhood of other pooling units from the same convolutional output. Then, each pooling unit is computed with some function which could be maximum and average. Maximum pooling returns the maximum value from the section of the image covered by the pooling unit while average pooling returns the average of all the values inside the pooling unit (see example). In result, there are fewer total pooling units than convolutional unit outputs from the previous layer, this is due to larger spacing between pixels on pooling layers. Using the max-pooling function reduces the effect of outliers and improves generalization. Other than that, overlapping pooling makes this spacing between pixels smaller than the size of the neighborhood that the pooling units summarize (This spacing is usually referred as the stride between pooling units). With this variant, pooling layer can produce a coarse coding of the outputs which helps generalization. <br />
[[File:maxandavgpooling.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Max pooling and Average pooling]]<br />
<br />
=== Local Response Normalization === <br />
<br />
This network includes local response normalization layers which are implemented in lateral form and used on neurons with unbounded activations and permits the detection of high-frequency features with a big neuron response. This regularizer encourages competition among neurons belonging to different banks. Normalization is done by dividing the activity of a neuron in bank <math>i</math> at position <math>(x,y)</math> by the equation:<br />
[[File:local response norm.png|upright=2|center|]] where the sum runs over <math>N</math> ‘adjacent’ banks of neurons at the same position as in the topographic organization of neuron bank. The constants, <math>N</math>, <math>alpha</math> and <math>betas</math> are hyper-parameters whose values are determined using a validation set. This technique is replaced by better techniques such as the combination of dropout and regularization methods (<math>L1</math> and <math>L2</math>)<br />
<br />
=== Neuron nonlinearities ===<br />
<br />
All of the neurons for this model use the max-with-zero nonlinearity where output within a neuron is computed as <math> a^{i}_{x,y} = max(0, z^i_{x,y})</math> where <math> z^i_{x,y} </math> is the total input to the neuron. The reason they use nonlinearity is because it has several advantages over traditional saturating neuron models, such as significant reduction in training time required to reach a certain error rate. Another advantage is that nonlinearity reduces the need for contrast-normalization and data pre-processing since neurons do not saturate- meaning activities simply scale up little by little with usually large input values. For this model’s only pre-processing step, they subtract the mean activity from each pixel and the result is a centered data.<br />
<br />
=== Objective function ===<br />
<br />
The objective function of their network maximizes the multinomial logistic regression objective which is the same as minimizing the average cross-entropy across training cases between the true label and the model’s predicted label.<br />
<br />
=== Weight Initialization === <br />
<br />
It’s important to note that if a neuron always receives a negative value during training, it will not learn because its output is uniformly zero under the max-with-zero nonlinearity. Hence, the weights in their model were sampled from a zero-mean normal distribution with a high enough variance. High variance in weights will set a certain number of neurons with positive values for learning to happen, and in practice, it’s necessary to try out several candidates for variances until a working initialization is found. In their experiment, setting a positive constant, or 1, as biases of the neurons in the hidden layers was helpful in finding it.<br />
<br />
=== Training ===<br />
<br />
In this model, a batch size of 128 samples and momentum of 0.9, we train our model using stochastic gradient descent. The update rule for weight <math>w</math> is $$ v_{i+1} = 0.9v_i + \epsilon <\frac{dE}{dw_i}> i$$ $$w_{i+1} = w_i + v_{i+1} $$ where <math>i</math> is the iteration index, <math>v</math> is a momentum variable, <math>\epsilon</math> is the learning rate and <math>\frac{dE}{dw}</math> is the average over the <math>i</math>th batch of the derivative of the objective with respect to <math>w_i</math>. The whole training process on CIFAR-10 takes roughly 90 minutes and ImageNet takes 4 days with dropout and two days without.<br />
<br />
=== Learning ===<br />
To determine the learning rate for the network, it is a must to start with an equal learning rate for each layer which produces the largest reduction in the objective function with power of ten. Usually, it is in the order of <math>10^{-2}</math> or <math>10^{-3}</math>. In this case, they reduce the learning rate twice by a factor of ten before termination of training.<br />
<br />
= CIFAR-10 =<br />
<br />
=== CIFAR-10 Dataset ===<br />
<br />
Removing incorrect labels, The CIFAR-10 dataset is a subset of the Tiny Images dataset with 10 classes. It contains 5000 training images and 1000 testing images for each class. The dataset has 32 x 32 color images searched from the web and the images are labeled with the noun used to search the image.<br />
<br />
[[File:CIFAR-10.png|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure 4: CIFAR-10 Sample Dataset]]<br />
<br />
=== Models for CIFAR-10 ===<br />
<br />
Two models, one with dropout and one without dropout, were built to test the performance of dropout on CIFAR-10. All models have CNN with three convolutional layers each with a pooling layer. All of the pooling payers use a stride=2 and summarize a 3*3 neighborhood. The max-pooling method is performed by the pooling layer which follows the first convolutional layer, and the average-pooling method is performed by remaining 2 pooling layers. The first and second pooling layers with <math>N = 9, α = 0.001</math>, and <math>β = 0.75</math> are followed by response normalization layers. A ten-unit softmax layer, which is used to output a probability distribution over class labels, is connected with the upper-most pooling layer. Using filter size of 5×5, all convolutional layers have 64 filter banks.<br />
<br />
Additional changes were made with the model with dropout. The model with dropout enables us to use more parameters because dropout forces a strong regularization on the network. Thus, a fourth weight layer is added to take the input from the previous pooling layer. This fourth weight layer is locally connected, but not convolutional, and contains 16 banks of filters of size 3 × 3 with 50% dropout. Lastly, the softmax layer takes its input from this fourth weight layer.<br />
<br />
Thus, with a neural network with 3 convolutional hidden layers with 3 max-pooling layers, the classification error achieved 16.6% to beat 18.5% from the best published error rate without using transformed data. The model with one additional locally-connected layer and dropout at the last hidden layer produced the error rate of 15.6%.<br />
<br />
= ImageNet =<br />
<br />
===ImageNet Dataset===<br />
<br />
ImageNet is a dataset of millions of high-resolution images, and they are labeled among 1000 different categories. The data were collected from the web and manually labeled using MTerk tool, which is a crowd-sourcing tool provided by Amazon.<br />
Because this dataset has millions of labeled images in thousands of categories, it is very difficult to have perfect accuracy on this dataset even for humans because the ImageNet images may contain multiple objects and there are a large number of object classes. ImageNet and CIFAR-10 are very similar, but the scale of ImageNet is about 20 times bigger (1,300,000 vs 60,000). The size of ImageNet is about 1.3 million training images, 50,000 validation images, and 150,000 testing images. They used resized images of 256 x 256 pixels for their experiments.<br />
<br />
'''An ambiguous example to classify:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet1.png|200px|center]]<br />
<br />
When this paper was written, the best score on this dataset was the error rate of 45.7% by High-dimensional signature compression for large-scale image classification (J. Sanchez, F. Perronnin, CVPR11 (2011)). The authors of this paper could achieve a comparable performance of 48.6% error rate using a single neural network with five convolutional hidden layers with a max-pooling layer in between, followed by two globally connected layers and a final 1000-way softmax layer. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
'''ImageNet Dataset:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet2.png|400px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Models for ImageNet===<br />
<br />
They mostly focused on the model with dropout because the one without dropout had a similar approach, but there was a serious issue with overfitting. They used a convolutional neural network trained by 224×224 patches randomly extracted from the 256 × 256 images. This could reduce the network’s capacity to overfit the training data and helped generalization as a form of data augmentation. The method of averaging the prediction of the net on ten 224 × 224 patches of the 256 × 256 input image was used for testing their model patched at the center, four corners, and their horizontal reflections. To maximize the performance on the validation set, this complicated network architecture was used and it was found that dropout was very effective. Also, it was demonstrated that using non-convolutional higher layers with the number of parameters worked well with dropout, but it had a negative impact to the performance without dropout.<br />
<br />
The network contains seven weight layers. The first five are convolutional, and the last two are globally-connected. Max-pooling layers follow the layer number 1,2, and 5. And then, the output of the last globally-connected layer was fed to a 1000-way softmax output layers. Using this architecture, the authors achieved the error rate of 48.6%. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:modelh2.png|700px|center]] <br />
<br />
[[File:layer2.png|600px|center]]<br />
<br />
Like the previous datasets, such as the MNIST, TIMIT, Reuters, and CIFAR-10, we also see a significant improvement for the ImageNet dataset. Including complicated architectures like this one, introducing dropout generalizes models better and gives lower test error rates.<br />
<br />
= Conclusion =<br />
<br />
The authors have shown a consistent improvement by the models trained with dropout in classifying objects in the following datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume I; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= Critiques =<br />
It is a very brilliant idea to dropout half of the neurons to reduce co-adaptations. It is mentioned that for fully connected layers, dropout in all hidden layers works better than dropout in only one hidden layer. There is another paper Dropout: A Simple Way to Prevent Neural Networks from<br />
Overfitting[https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf] gives a more detailed explanation.<br />
<br />
It will be interesting to see how this paper could be used to prevent overfitting of LSTMs.<br />
<br />
Firstly, it is a very interested topic of classification by "dropout" CNN method(omitting neurons in hidden layers). If the author can briefly explain the advantages of this method in processing image data in theory, it will be easier for readers to understand. Also, how to deal with overfitting issue would be valuable.<br />
<br />
The authors mention that they tried various dropout probabilities and that the majority of them improved the model's generalization performance, but that more extreme probabilities tended to be worse which is why a dropout rate of 50% was used in the paper. The authors further develop this point to mention that the method can be improved by adapting individual dropout probabilities of each hidden or input unit using validation tests. This would be an interesting area to further develop and explore, as using a hardcoded 50% dropout for all layers might not be the optimal choice for all CNN applications. It would have been interesting to see the results of their investigations of differing dropout rates.<br />
<br />
The authors don't explain that during training, at each layer that we apply dropout, the values must be scaled by 1/p where p is dropout rate - this way the expected value of the layers is the same in both train and test time. They may have considered another solution for this discrepancy at the time (it is an old paper) but it doesn't seem like any solution was presented here. <br />
<br />
Despite the advantages of using dropout to prevent overfitting and reducing errors in testing, the authors did not discuss much about the effects on the length of training time. In another [https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf paper] published a few years later by the same authors, there was more discussion about this. It appears that dropout increases training time by 2-3 times compared to a standard NN with the same architecture, which is a drawback that might be worth mentioning.<br />
<br />
Dropout layers prevent overfitting by randomly dropout a fraction of the neurons specified in each layer. In fact, the neurons to be dropped out in each layer are randomly selected. Therefore, it might be the case that some important features in the dropout layer are discarded, which leads to a sudden drop in performance. Although this barely happens, and CNN with dropout rates roughly 50% in each layer will lead to generally good performance, some future improvements is still possible if we are able to select dropout neurons cleverly.<br />
<br />
== Reference ==<br />
[1] N. Srivastave, "Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting", The Journal of Machine Learning Research, Jan 2014.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Improving_neural_networks_by_preventing_co-adaption_of_feature_detectors&diff=49116Improving neural networks by preventing co-adaption of feature detectors2020-12-04T07:14:49Z<p>J632liu: /* Improvement Intro */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by ==<br />
Stan Lee, Seokho Lim, Kyle Jung, Dae Hyun Kim<br />
<br />
= Improvement Intro =<br />
'''Drop Out Model'''<br />
<br />
In this paper, Hinton et al. introduce a novel way to improve neural networks’ performance, particularly in the case that a large feedforward neural network is trained on a small training set, which causes poor performance and leads to “overfitting” problem. This problem can be reduced by randomly omitting half of the feature detectors on each training case. In fact, By omitting neurons in hidden layers with a probability of 0.5, each hidden unit is prevented from relying on other hidden units being present during training. Hence there are fewer co-adaptations among them on the training data. Called “dropout,” this process is also an efficient alternative to train many separate networks and average their predictions on the test set. <br />
<br />
The intuition for dropout is that if neurons are randomly dropped during training, they can no longer rely on their neighbours, thus allowing each neutron to become more robust. Another interpretation is that dropout is similar to training an ensemble of models, since each epoch with randomly dropped neurons can be viewed as its own model. <br />
<br />
They used the standard, stochastic gradient descent algorithm and separated training data into mini-batches. An upper bound was set on the L2 norm of incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron, which was normalized if its size exceeds the bound. They found that using a constraint, instead of a penalty, forced model to do a more thorough search of the weight-space, when coupled with the very large learning rate that decays during training.<br />
<br />
'''Mean Network'''<br />
<br />
Their dropout models included all of the hidden neurons, and their outgoing weights were halved to account for the chances of omission. This is called an 'Mean Network'. This is similar to taking the geometric mean of the probability distribution predicted by all <math>2^N</math> networks. Due to this cumulative addition, the correct answers will have higher log probability than an individual dropout network, which also lead to a lower square error of the network. <br />
<br />
<br />
The models were shown to result in lower test error rates on several datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= MNIST =<br />
The MNIST dataset contains 70,000 digit images of size 28 x 28. To see the impact of dropout, they used 4 different neural networks (784-800-800-10, 784-1200-1200-10, 784-2000-2000-10, 784-1200-1200-1200-10), using the same dropout rates as 50% for hidden neurons and 20% for visible neurons. Stochastic gradient descent was used with mini-batches of size 100 and a cross-entropy objective function as the loss function. Weights were updated after each minibatch, and training was done for 3000 epochs. An exponentially decaying learning rate <math>\epsilon</math> was used, with the initial value set as 10.0, and it was multiplied by the decaying factor <math>f</math> = 0.998 at the end of each epoch. At each hidden layer, the incoming weight vector for each hidden neuron was set an upper bound of its length, <math>l</math>, and they found from cross-validation that the results were the best when <math>l</math> = 15. Initial weights values were pooled from a normal distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation of 0.01. To update weights, an additional variable, ''p'', called momentum, was used to accelerate learning. The initial value of <math>p</math> was 0.5, and it increased linearly to the final value 0.99 during the first 500 epochs, remaining unchanged after. Also, when updating weights, the learning rate was multiplied by <math>1 – p</math>. <math>L</math> denotes the gradient of loss function.<br />
<br />
[[File:weights_mnist2.png|center|400px]]<br />
<br />
The best published result for a standard feedforward neural network was 160 errors. This was reduced to about 130 errors with 0.5 dropout and different L2 constraints for each hidden unit input weight. By omitting a random 20% of the input pixels in addition to the aforementioned changes, the number of errors was further reduced to 110. The following figure visualizes the result.<br />
[[File:mnist_figure.png|center|500px]]<br />
A publicly available pre-trained deep belief net resulted in 118 errors, and it was reduced to 92 errors when the model was fine-tuned with dropout. Another publicly available model was a deep Boltzmann machine, and it resulted in 103, 97, 94, 93 and 88 when the model was fine-tuned using standard backpropagation and was unrolled. They were reduced to 83, 79, 78, 78, and 77 when the model was fine-tuned with dropout – the mean of 79 errors was a record for models that do not use prior knowledge or enhanced training sets.<br />
<br />
= TIMIT = <br />
<br />
TIMIT dataset includes voice samples of 630 American English speakers varying across 8 different dialects. It is often used to evaluate the performance of automatic speech recognition systems. Using Kaldi, the dataset was pre-processed to extract input features in the form of log filter bank responses.<br />
<br />
=== Pre-training and Training ===<br />
<br />
For pretraining, they pretrained their neural network with a deep belief network and the first layer was built using Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM). Initializing visible biases with zero, weights were sampled from random numbers that followed normal distribution <math>N(0, 0.01)</math>. Each visible neuron’s variance was set to 1.0 and remained unchanged.<br />
<br />
Minimizing Contrastive Divergence (CD) was used to facilitate learning. Since momentum is used to speed up learning, it was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly to 0.9 over 20 epochs. The average gradient had 0.001 of a learning rate which was then multiplied by <math>(1-momentum)</math> and L2 weight decay was set to 0.001. After setting up the hyperparameters, the model was done training after 100 epochs. Binary RBMs were used for training all subsequent layers with a learning rate of 0.01. Then, <math>p</math> was set as the mean activation of a neuron in the data set and the visible bias of each neuron was initialized to <math>log(p/(1 − p))</math>. Training each layer with 50 epochs, all remaining hyper-parameters were the same as those for the Gaussian RBM.<br />
<br />
=== Dropout tuning ===<br />
<br />
The initial weights were set in a neural network from the pretrained RBMs. To finetune the network with dropout-backpropagation, momentum was initially set to 0.5 and increased linearly up to 0.9 over 10 epochs. The model had a small constant learning rate of 1.0 and it was used to apply to the average gradient on a minibatch. The model also retained all other hyperparameters the same as the model from MNIST dropout finetuning. The model required approximately 200 epochs to converge. For comparison purpose, they also finetuned the same network with standard backpropagation with a learning rate of 0.1 with the same hyperparameters.<br />
<br />
=== Classification Test and Performance ===<br />
<br />
A Neural network was constructed to output the classification error rate on the test set of TIMIT dataset. They have built the neural network with four fully-connected hidden layers with 4000 neurons per layer. The output layer distinguishes distinct classes from 185 softmax output neurons that are merged into 39 classes. After constructing the neural network, 21 adjacent frames with an advance of 10ms per frame was given as an input.<br />
<br />
Comparing the performance of dropout with standard backpropagation on several network architectures and input representations, dropout consistently achieved lower error and cross-entropy. Results showed that it significantly controls overfitting, making the method robust to choices of network architecture. It also allowed much larger nets to be trained and removed the need for early stopping. Thus, neural network architectures with dropout are not very sensitive to the choice of learning rate and momentum.<br />
<br />
= Reuters Corpus Volume =<br />
Reuters Corpus Volume I archives 804,414 news documents that belong to 103 topics. Under four major themes - corporate/industrial, economics, government/social, and markets – they belonged to 63 classes. After removing 11 classes with no data and one class with insufficient data, they are left with 50 classes and 402,738 documents. The documents were divided into training and test sets equally and randomly, with each document representing the 2000 most frequent words in the dataset, excluding stopwords.<br />
<br />
They trained two neural networks, with size 2000-2000-1000-50, one using dropout and backpropagation, and the other using standard backpropagation. The training hyperparameters are the same as that in MNIST, but training was done for 500 epochs.<br />
<br />
In the following figure, we see the significant improvements by the model with dropout in the test set error. On the right side, we see that learning with dropout also proceeds smoother. <br />
<br />
[[File:reuters_figure.png|700px|center]]<br />
<br />
= CNN =<br />
<br />
Feed-forward neural networks consist of several layers of neurons where each neuron in a layer applies a linear filter to the input image data and is passed on to the neurons in the next layer. When calculating the neuron’s output, scalar bias a.k.a weights is applied to the filter with nonlinear activation function as parameters of the network that are learned by training data. [[File:cnnbigpicture.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Overview of Convolutional Neural Network]] There are several differences between Convolutional Neural networks and ordinary neural networks. The figure above gives a visual representation of a Convolutional Neural Network. First, CNN’s neurons are organized topographically into a bank and laid out on a 2D grid, so it reflects the organization of dimensions of the input data. Secondly, neurons in CNN apply filters which are local, and which are centered at the neuron’s location in the topographic organization. Meaning that useful metrics or clues to identify the object in an input image which can be found by examining local neighborhoods of the image. Next, all neurons in a bank apply the same filter at different locations in the input image. When looking at the image example, green is an input to one neuron bank, yellow is filter bank, and pink is the output of one neuron bank (convolved feature). A bank of neurons in a CNN applies a convolution operation, aka filters, to its input where a single layer in a CNN typically has multiple banks of neurons, each performing a convolution with a different filter. The resulting neuron banks become distinct input channels into the next layer. The whole process reduces the net’s representational capacity, but also reduces the capacity to overfit.<br />
[[File:bankofneurons.gif|thumb|upright=3|center|alt=text|Figure: Bank of neurons]]<br />
<br />
=== Pooling ===<br />
<br />
Pooling layer summarizes the activities of local patches of neurons in the convolutional layer by subsampling the output of a convolutional layer. Pooling is useful for extracting dominant features, to decrease the computational power required to process the data through dimensionality reduction. The procedure of pooling goes on like this; output from convolutional layers is divided into sections called pooling units and they are laid out topographically, connected to a local neighborhood of other pooling units from the same convolutional output. Then, each pooling unit is computed with some function which could be maximum and average. Maximum pooling returns the maximum value from the section of the image covered by the pooling unit while average pooling returns the average of all the values inside the pooling unit (see example). In result, there are fewer total pooling units than convolutional unit outputs from the previous layer, this is due to larger spacing between pixels on pooling layers. Using the max-pooling function reduces the effect of outliers and improves generalization. Other than that, overlapping pooling makes this spacing between pixels smaller than the size of the neighborhood that the pooling units summarize (This spacing is usually referred as the stride between pooling units). With this variant, pooling layer can produce a coarse coding of the outputs which helps generalization. <br />
[[File:maxandavgpooling.jpeg|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure: Max pooling and Average pooling]]<br />
<br />
=== Local Response Normalization === <br />
<br />
This network includes local response normalization layers which are implemented in lateral form and used on neurons with unbounded activations and permits the detection of high-frequency features with a big neuron response. This regularizer encourages competition among neurons belonging to different banks. Normalization is done by dividing the activity of a neuron in bank <math>i</math> at position <math>(x,y)</math> by the equation:<br />
[[File:local response norm.png|upright=2|center|]] where the sum runs over <math>N</math> ‘adjacent’ banks of neurons at the same position as in the topographic organization of neuron bank. The constants, <math>N</math>, <math>alpha</math> and <math>betas</math> are hyper-parameters whose values are determined using a validation set. This technique is replaced by better techniques such as the combination of dropout and regularization methods (<math>L1</math> and <math>L2</math>)<br />
<br />
=== Neuron nonlinearities ===<br />
<br />
All of the neurons for this model use the max-with-zero nonlinearity where output within a neuron is computed as <math> a^{i}_{x,y} = max(0, z^i_{x,y})</math> where <math> z^i_{x,y} </math> is the total input to the neuron. The reason they use nonlinearity is because it has several advantages over traditional saturating neuron models, such as significant reduction in training time required to reach a certain error rate. Another advantage is that nonlinearity reduces the need for contrast-normalization and data pre-processing since neurons do not saturate- meaning activities simply scale up little by little with usually large input values. For this model’s only pre-processing step, they subtract the mean activity from each pixel and the result is a centered data.<br />
<br />
=== Objective function ===<br />
<br />
The objective function of their network maximizes the multinomial logistic regression objective which is the same as minimizing the average cross-entropy across training cases between the true label and the model’s predicted label.<br />
<br />
=== Weight Initialization === <br />
<br />
It’s important to note that if a neuron always receives a negative value during training, it will not learn because its output is uniformly zero under the max-with-zero nonlinearity. Hence, the weights in their model were sampled from a zero-mean normal distribution with a high enough variance. High variance in weights will set a certain number of neurons with positive values for learning to happen, and in practice, it’s necessary to try out several candidates for variances until a working initialization is found. In their experiment, setting a positive constant, or 1, as biases of the neurons in the hidden layers was helpful in finding it.<br />
<br />
=== Training ===<br />
<br />
In this model, a batch size of 128 samples and momentum of 0.9, we train our model using stochastic gradient descent. The update rule for weight <math>w</math> is $$ v_{i+1} = 0.9v_i + \epsilon <\frac{dE}{dw_i}> i$$ $$w_{i+1} = w_i + v_{i+1} $$ where <math>i</math> is the iteration index, <math>v</math> is a momentum variable, <math>\epsilon</math> is the learning rate and <math>\frac{dE}{dw}</math> is the average over the <math>i</math>th batch of the derivative of the objective with respect to <math>w_i</math>. The whole training process on CIFAR-10 takes roughly 90 minutes and ImageNet takes 4 days with dropout and two days without.<br />
<br />
=== Learning ===<br />
To determine the learning rate for the network, it is a must to start with an equal learning rate for each layer which produces the largest reduction in the objective function with power of ten. Usually, it is in the order of <math>10^{-2}</math> or <math>10^{-3}</math>. In this case, they reduce the learning rate twice by a factor of ten before termination of training.<br />
<br />
= CIFAR-10 =<br />
<br />
=== CIFAR-10 Dataset ===<br />
<br />
Removing incorrect labels, The CIFAR-10 dataset is a subset of the Tiny Images dataset with 10 classes. It contains 5000 training images and 1000 testing images for each class. The dataset has 32 x 32 color images searched from the web and the images are labeled with the noun used to search the image.<br />
<br />
[[File:CIFAR-10.png|thumb|upright=2|center|alt=text|Figure 4: CIFAR-10 Sample Dataset]]<br />
<br />
=== Models for CIFAR-10 ===<br />
<br />
Two models, one with dropout and one without dropout, were built to test the performance of dropout on CIFAR-10. All models have CNN with three convolutional layers each with a pooling layer. All of the pooling payers use a stride=2 and summarize a 3*3 neighborhood. The max-pooling method is performed by the pooling layer which follows the first convolutional layer, and the average-pooling method is performed by remaining 2 pooling layers. The first and second pooling layers with <math>N = 9, α = 0.001</math>, and <math>β = 0.75</math> are followed by response normalization layers. A ten-unit softmax layer, which is used to output a probability distribution over class labels, is connected with the upper-most pooling layer. Using filter size of 5×5, all convolutional layers have 64 filter banks.<br />
<br />
Additional changes were made with the model with dropout. The model with dropout enables us to use more parameters because dropout forces a strong regularization on the network. Thus, a fourth weight layer is added to take the input from the previous pooling layer. This fourth weight layer is locally connected, but not convolutional, and contains 16 banks of filters of size 3 × 3 with 50% dropout. Lastly, the softmax layer takes its input from this fourth weight layer.<br />
<br />
Thus, with a neural network with 3 convolutional hidden layers with 3 max-pooling layers, the classification error achieved 16.6% to beat 18.5% from the best published error rate without using transformed data. The model with one additional locally-connected layer and dropout at the last hidden layer produced the error rate of 15.6%.<br />
<br />
= ImageNet =<br />
<br />
===ImageNet Dataset===<br />
<br />
ImageNet is a dataset of millions of high-resolution images, and they are labeled among 1000 different categories. The data were collected from the web and manually labeled using MTerk tool, which is a crowd-sourcing tool provided by Amazon.<br />
Because this dataset has millions of labeled images in thousands of categories, it is very difficult to have perfect accuracy on this dataset even for humans because the ImageNet images may contain multiple objects and there are a large number of object classes. ImageNet and CIFAR-10 are very similar, but the scale of ImageNet is about 20 times bigger (1,300,000 vs 60,000). The size of ImageNet is about 1.3 million training images, 50,000 validation images, and 150,000 testing images. They used resized images of 256 x 256 pixels for their experiments.<br />
<br />
'''An ambiguous example to classify:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet1.png|200px|center]]<br />
<br />
When this paper was written, the best score on this dataset was the error rate of 45.7% by High-dimensional signature compression for large-scale image classification (J. Sanchez, F. Perronnin, CVPR11 (2011)). The authors of this paper could achieve a comparable performance of 48.6% error rate using a single neural network with five convolutional hidden layers with a max-pooling layer in between, followed by two globally connected layers and a final 1000-way softmax layer. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
'''ImageNet Dataset:'''<br />
<br />
[[File:imagenet2.png|400px|center]]<br />
<br />
===Models for ImageNet===<br />
<br />
They mostly focused on the model with dropout because the one without dropout had a similar approach, but there was a serious issue with overfitting. They used a convolutional neural network trained by 224×224 patches randomly extracted from the 256 × 256 images. This could reduce the network’s capacity to overfit the training data and helped generalization as a form of data augmentation. The method of averaging the prediction of the net on ten 224 × 224 patches of the 256 × 256 input image was used for testing their model patched at the center, four corners, and their horizontal reflections. To maximize the performance on the validation set, this complicated network architecture was used and it was found that dropout was very effective. Also, it was demonstrated that using non-convolutional higher layers with the number of parameters worked well with dropout, but it had a negative impact to the performance without dropout.<br />
<br />
The network contains seven weight layers. The first five are convolutional, and the last two are globally-connected. Max-pooling layers follow the layer number 1,2, and 5. And then, the output of the last globally-connected layer was fed to a 1000-way softmax output layers. Using this architecture, the authors achieved the error rate of 48.6%. When applying 50% dropout to the 6th layer, the error rate was brought down to 42.4%.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:modelh2.png|700px|center]] <br />
<br />
[[File:layer2.png|600px|center]]<br />
<br />
Like the previous datasets, such as the MNIST, TIMIT, Reuters, and CIFAR-10, we also see a significant improvement for the ImageNet dataset. Including complicated architectures like this one, introducing dropout generalizes models better and gives lower test error rates.<br />
<br />
= Conclusion =<br />
<br />
The authors have shown a consistent improvement by the models trained with dropout in classifying objects in the following datasets: MNIST; TIMIT; Reuters Corpus Volume I; CIFAR-10; and ImageNet.<br />
<br />
= Critiques =<br />
It is a very brilliant idea to dropout half of the neurons to reduce co-adaptations. It is mentioned that for fully connected layers, dropout in all hidden layers works better than dropout in only one hidden layer. There is another paper Dropout: A Simple Way to Prevent Neural Networks from<br />
Overfitting[https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf] gives a more detailed explanation.<br />
<br />
It will be interesting to see how this paper could be used to prevent overfitting of LSTMs.<br />
<br />
Firstly, it is a very interested topic of classification by "dropout" CNN method(omitting neurons in hidden layers). If the author can briefly explain the advantages of this method in processing image data in theory, it will be easier for readers to understand. Also, how to deal with overfitting issue would be valuable.<br />
<br />
The authors mention that they tried various dropout probabilities and that the majority of them improved the model's generalization performance, but that more extreme probabilities tended to be worse which is why a dropout rate of 50% was used in the paper. The authors further develop this point to mention that the method can be improved by adapting individual dropout probabilities of each hidden or input unit using validation tests. This would be an interesting area to further develop and explore, as using a hardcoded 50% dropout for all layers might not be the optimal choice for all CNN applications. It would have been interesting to see the results of their investigations of differing dropout rates.<br />
<br />
The authors don't explain that during training, at each layer that we apply dropout, the values must be scaled by 1/p where p is dropout rate - this way the expected value of the layers is the same in both train and test time. They may have considered another solution for this discrepancy at the time (it is an old paper) but it doesn't seem like any solution was presented here. <br />
<br />
Despite the advantages of using dropout to prevent overfitting and reducing errors in testing, the authors did not discuss much about the effects on the length of training time. In another [https://www.cs.toronto.edu/~hinton/absps/JMLRdropout.pdf paper] published a few years later by the same authors, there was more discussion about this. It appears that dropout increases training time by 2-3 times compared to a standard NN with the same architecture, which is a drawback that might be worth mentioning. <br />
<br />
== Reference ==<br />
[1] N. Srivastave, "Dropout: a simple way to prevent neural networks from overfitting", The Journal of Machine Learning Research, Jan 2014.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Deep_Learning_for_Cardiologist-level_Myocardial_Infarction_Detection_in_Electrocardiograms&diff=48994Deep Learning for Cardiologist-level Myocardial Infarction Detection in Electrocardiograms2020-12-03T09:33:51Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Presented by ==<br />
<br />
Zihui (Betty) Qin, Wenqi (Maggie) Zhao, Muyuan Yang, Amartya (Marty) Mukherjee<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
This paper presents an approach on detecting heart disease from ECG signals by fine-tuning the deep learning neural network, ConvNetQuake. For context, ConvNetQuake is a convolutional neural network, used by Perol, Gharbi, and Denolle [4], for Earthquake detection and location from a single waveform. A deep learning approach was used due to the model's ability to be trained using multiple GPUs and terabyte-sized datasets. This, in turn, creates a model that is robust against noise. The purpose of this paper is to provide detailed analyses of the contributions of the ECG leads on identifying heart disease, to show the use of multiple channels in ConvNetQuake enhances prediction accuracy, and to show that feature engineering is not necessary for any of the training, validation, or testing processes. In this area, the combination of data fusion and machine learning techniques exhibits great promise to healthcare innovation, and the analyses in this paper help further this realization. The benefits of translating knowledge between deep learning and its real-world applications in health are also illustrated.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work and Motivation ==<br />
<br />
The database used in previous works is the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) database, which consists of ECG records. Previous papers used techniques, such as CNN, SVM, K-nearest neighbors, naïve Bayes classification, and ANN. From these instances, the paper observes several faults in the previous papers. The first being the issue that most papers use feature selection on the raw ECG data before training the model. Dabanloo and Attarodi [2] used various techniques such as ANN, K-nearest neighbors, and Naïve Bayes. However, they extracted two features, the T-wave integral and the total integral, to aid in localizing and detecting heart disease. Sharma and Sunkaria [3] used SVM and K-nearest neighbors as their classifier, but extracted various features using stationary wavelet transforms to decompose the ECG signal into sub-bands. The second issue is that papers that do not use feature selection would arbitrarily pick ECG leads for classification without rationale. For example, Liu et al. [1] used a deep CNN that uses 3 seconds of ECG signal from lead II at a time as input. The decision for using lead II compared to the other leads was not explained. <br />
<br />
The issue with feature selection is that it can be time-consuming and impractical with large volumes of data. The second issue with the arbitrary selection of leads is that it does not offer insight into why the lead was chosen and the contributions of each lead in the identification of heart disease. Thus, this paper addresses these two issues through implementing a deep learning model that does not rely on feature selection of ECG data and to quantify the contributions of each ECG and Frank lead in identifying heart disease.<br />
<br />
== Model Architecture ==<br />
<br />
The dataset, which was used to train, validate, and test the neural network models, consists of 549 ECG records taken from 290 unique patients. Each ECG record has a mean length of over 100 seconds.<br />
<br />
This Deep Neural Network model was created by modifying the ConvNetQuake model by adding 1D batch normalization layers; this addition helps to combat overfitting. A second modification that was made was to introduce the use of label smoothing, which can help by discouraging the model from making overconfident predictions. Label smoothing refers to the method of relaxing the confidence on the model's prediction labels. The authors' experiments demonstrated that both of these modifications helped to increase model accuracy. <br />
<br />
During the training stage, a 10-second long two-channel input was fed into the neural network. In order to ensure that the two channels were weighted equally, both channels were normalized. Besides, time invariance was incorporated by selecting the 10-second long segment randomly from the entire signal. <br />
<br />
The input layer is a 10-second long ECG signal. There are 8 hidden layers in this model, each of which consists of a 1D convolution layer with the ReLu activation function followed by a batch normalization layer. The output layer is a one-dimensional layer that uses the Sigmoid activation function.<br />
<br />
This model is trained by using batches of size 10. The learning rate is 10^-4. The ADAM optimizer is used. In training the model, the dataset is split into a train set, validation set, and test set with ratios 80-10-10.<br />
<br />
During the training process, the model was trained from scratch numerous times to avoid inserting unintended variation into the model by randomly initializing weights.<br />
<br />
The following images gives a visual representation of the model.<br />
<br />
[[File:architecture.png | thumb | center | 1000px | Model Architecture (Gupta et al., 2019)]]<br />
<br />
==Results== <br />
<br />
The paper first uses quantification of accuracies for single channels with 20-fold cross-validation, resulting in the highest individual accuracies: v5, v6, vx, vz, and ii. The researchers further investigated the accuracies for pairs of the top 5 highest individual channels using 20-fold cross-validation. They arrived at the conclusion of highest pairs accuracies to fed into a neural network is lead v6 and lead vz. They then use 100-fold cross validation on v6 and vz pair of channels, then compare outliers based on top 20, top 50 and total 100 performing models, finding that standard deviation is non-trivial and there are few models performed very poorly. <br />
<br />
Next, they discussed 2 factors affecting model performance evaluation: 1) Random train-val-test split might have effects on the performance of the model, but it can be improved by access with a larger data set and further discussion; and 2) random initialization of the weights of the neural network shows little effects on the performance of the model performance evaluation, because of showing high average results with a fixed train-val-test split. <br />
<br />
Comparing with other models in the other 12 papers, the model in this article has the highest accuracy, specificity, and precision. With concerns of patients' records affecting the training accuracy, they used 290 fold patient-wise split, resulting in the same highest accuracy of the pair v6 and vz same as record-wise split. The second best pair was ii and vz, which also contains the vz channel. Combining the two best pair channels into v6, vz, vii ultimately gave the best results over 10 trials which has an average of 97.83% in patient-wise split. Even though the patient-wise split might result in lower accuracy evaluation, however, it still maintains a very high average.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion & Discussion== <br />
<br />
The paper introduced a new architecture for heart condition classification based on raw ECG signals using multiple leads. It outperformed the state-of-art model by a large margin of 1 percent. This study finds that out of the 15 ECG channels(12 conventional ECG leads and 3 Frank Leads), channel v6, vz, and ii contain the most meaningful information for detecting myocardial infraction. Also, recent advances in machine learning can be leveraged to produce a model capable of classifying myocardial infraction with a cardiologist-level success rate. To further improve the performance of the models, access to a larger labeled data set is needed. The PTB database is small. It is difficult to test the true robustness of the model with a relatively small test set. If a larger data set can be found to help correctly identify other heart conditions beyond myocardial infraction, the research group plans to share the deep learning models and develop an open-source, computationally efficient app that can be readily used by cardiologists.<br />
<br />
A detailed analysis of the relative importance of each of the 15 ECG channels indicates that deep learning can identify myocardial infraction by processing only ten seconds of raw ECG data from the v6, vz and ii leads and reaches a cardiologist-level success rate. Deep learning algorithms may be readily used as commodity software. The neural network model that was originally designed to identify earthquakes may be re-designed and tuned to identify myocardial infraction. Feature engineering of ECG data is not required to identify myocardial infraction in the PTB database. This model only required ten seconds of raw ECG data to identify this heart condition with cardiologist-level performance. Access to a larger database should be provided to deep learning researchers so they can work on detecting different types of heart conditions. Deep learning researchers and the cardiology community can work together to develop deep learning algorithms that provide trustworthy, real-time information regarding heart conditions with minimal computational resources.<br />
<br />
Fourier Transform(such as FFT) can be helpful when dealing with ECG signals. It transforms signals from time domain to frequency domain, which means some hidden features in frequency may be discovered.<br />
<br />
==Critiques==<br />
- The lack of large, labelled data sets is often a common problem in most applied deep learning studies. Since the PTB database is as small as you describe it to be, the robustness of the model which may be hard to gauge. There are very likely various other physical factors that may play a role in the study which the deep neural network may not be able to adjust for as well, since health data can be somewhat subjective at times and/or may be somewhat inaccurate, especially if machines are used to measurement. This might mean error was propagated forward in the study.<br />
<br />
- Additionally, there is a risk of confirmation bias, which may occur when a model is self-training, especially given the fact that the training set is small.<br />
<br />
- I feel that the results of deep learning models in medical settings where the consequences of misclassification can be severe should be evaluated by assigning weights to classification. In case if the misclassification can lead to severe consequences, then the network should be trained in such a way that it errs towards safety. For example, in case if heart disease, the consequences will be very high if the system says that there is no heart disease when in fact there is. So, the evaluation metric must be selected carefully.<br />
<br />
- This is a useful and meaningful application topic in machine learning. Using Deep Learning to detect heart disease can be very helpful if it is difficult to detect disease by looking at ECG by humans eys. This model also useful for doing statistics, such as calculating the percentage of people get heart disease. But I think the doctor should not 100% trust the result from the model, it is almost impossible to get 100% accuracy from a model. So, I think double-checking by human eyes is necessary if the result is weird. What is more, I think it will be interesting to discuss more applications in mediccal by using this method, such as detecting the Brainwave diagram to predict a person's mood and to diagnose mental diseases.<br />
<br />
- Compared to the dataset for other topics such as object recognition, the PTB database is pretty small with only 549 ECG records. And these are highly unbiased (Table 1) with 4 records for myocarditis and 148 for myocardial infarction. Medical datasets can only be labeled by specialists. This is why these datasets are related small. It would be great if there will be a larger, more comprehensive dataset.<br />
<br />
- Only results using 20-fold cross validation were presented. It should be shown that the results could be reproduced using a more common number of folds like 5 or 10<br />
<br />
- There are potential issues with the inclusion of Frank leads. From a practitioner standpoint, ECGs taken with Frank leads are less common. This could prevent the use of this technique. Additionally, Frank leads are expressible as a linear combinations of the 12 traditional leads. The authors are not adding any fundamentally new information by including them and their inclusion could be viewed as a form of feature selection (going against the authors' original intentions).<br />
<br />
- It will better if we can see how the model in this paper outperformed those methods that used feature selections. The details of the results are not enough.<br />
<br />
- A new extended dataset for PTB dubbed [https://www.nature.com/articles/s41597-020-0495-6 PTB-XL], has 21837 records. Using this dataset could yield a more accurate result, since the original PTB's small dataset posed limitations on the deep learning model.<br />
<br />
- The paper mentions that it has better results, but by how much? what accuracy did the methods you compared to have? Also, what methods did you compare to? (Authors mentioned feature engineering methods but this is vague) Also how much were the labels smoothed? (i.e. 1 -> 0.99 or 1-> 0.95 for example) How much of a difference did the label smoothing make?<br />
<br />
- It is nice to see that the authors also considered training and testing the model on data via a patient-wise split, which gives more insights towards the cases when a patient has multiple records of diagnosis. Obviously and similar to what other critiques suggested, using a patient-wise split might disadvantage from the lack of training data, given that there are only 290 unique patients in the PTB database. Also, acquiring prior knowledge from professionals about correlations, such as causal relationships, between different diagnoses might be helpful for improving the model.<br />
<br />
- As mentioned above, the dataset is comparably small in the context of machine learning. While on the other hand, each record has a length of roughly 100 seconds, which is significantly large as a single input. Therefore, it might be helpful to apply data augmentation algorithms during data preprocessing sections so that there will be a more reasonable dataset than what we currently have so far, which has a high chance of being biased or overfitted.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
[1] Na Liu et al. "A Simple and Effective Method for Detecting Myocardial Infarction Based on Deep Convolutional Neural Network". In: Journal of Medical Imaging and Health Informatics (Sept. 2018). doi: 10.1166/jmihi.2018.2463.<br />
<br />
[2] Naser Safdarian, N.J. Dabanloo, and Gholamreza Attarodi. "A New Pattern Recognition Method for Detection and Localization of Myocardial Infarction Using T-Wave Integral and Total Integral as Extracted Features from One Cycle of ECG Signal". In: J. Biomedical Science and Engineering (Aug. 2014). doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/jbise.2014.710081.<br />
<br />
[3] L.D. Sharma and R.K. Sunkaria. "Inferior myocardial infarction detection using stationary wavelet transform and machine learning approach." In: Signal, Image and Video Processing (July 2017). doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11760-017-1146-z.<br />
<br />
[4] Perol Thibaut, Gharbi Michaël, and Denolle Marin. "Convolutional neural network for earthquake detection and location". In: Science Advances (Feb. 2018). doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1700578</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Loss_Function_Search_for_Face_Recognition&diff=48979Loss Function Search for Face Recognition2020-12-03T07:19:53Z<p>J632liu: /* Data Preprocessing */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by ==<br />
Jan Lau, Anas Mahdi, Will Thibault, Jiwon Yang<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
Face recognition is a technology that can label a face to a specific identity. The process involves two tasks: 1. Identifying and classifying a face to a certain identity and 2. Verifying if this face and another face map to the same identity. Loss functions play an important role in evaluating how well the prediction models the given data. In the application of face recognition, they are used for training convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with discriminative features. However, traditional softmax loss lacks the power of feature discrimination. To solve this problem, a center loss was developed to learn centers for each identity to enhance the intra-class compactness.<br />
<br />
Hence, the paper introduced a new loss function which can reduce the softmax probability. Softmax probability is the probability for each class. It contains a vector of values that add up to 1 while ranging between 0 and 1. Cross-entropy loss is the negative log of the probabilities. When softmax probability is combined with cross-entropy loss in the last fully connected layer of the CNN, it yields the softmax loss function:<br />
<br />
<center><math>L_1=-log\frac{e^{w^T_yx}}{e^{w^T_yx} + \sum_{k≠y}^K{e^{w^T_yx}}}</math> [1] </center><br />
<br />
Specifically for face recognition, <math>L_1</math> is modified such that <math>w^T_yx</math> is normalized and <math>s</math> represents the magnitude of <math>w^T_yx</math>:<br />
<br />
<center><math>L_2=-log\frac{e^{s cos{(\theta_{{w_y},x})}}}{e^{s cos{(\theta_{{w_y},x})}} + \sum_{k≠y}^K{e^{s cos{(\theta_{{w_y},x})}}}}</math> [1] </center><br />
<br />
This function is crucial in face recognition because it is used for enhancing feature discrimination. While there are different variations of the softmax loss function, they build upon the same structure as the equation above. Some of these variations will be discussed in detail in the later sections. <br />
<br />
In this paper, the authors first identified that reducing the softmax probability is a key contribution to feature discrimination and designed two design search spaces (random and reward-guided method). They then evaluated their Random-Softmax and Search-Softmax approaches by comparing the results against other face recognition algorithms using nine popular face recognition benchmarks.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work ==<br />
Margin-based (angular, additive, additive angular margins) soft-max loss functions are important in learning discriminative features in face recognition. There have been hand-crafted methods previously developed that require much efforts such as A-softmax, V-softmax, AM-Softmax, and Arc-softmax. Li et al. proposed an AutoML for loss function search method also known as AM-LFS from a hyper-parameter optimization perspective [2]. It automatically determines the search space by leveraging reinforcement learning to the search loss functions during the training process, though the drawback is the complex and unstable search space.<br />
<br />
== Motivation ==<br />
Previous algorithms for facial recognition frequently rely on CNNs that may include metric learning loss functions such as contrastive loss or triplet loss. Without sensitive sample mining strategies, the computational cost for these functions was high. This drawback prompts the redesign of classical softmax loss that cannot discriminate features. Multiple softmax loss functions have since been developed, and including margin-based formulations, they often require fine-tuning of parameters and are susceptible to instability. Therefore, researchers need to put in a lot of effort in creating their method in the large design space. AM-LFS takes an optimization approach for selecting hyperparameters for the margin-based softmax functions, but its aforementioned drawbacks are caused by the lack of direction in designing the search space.<br />
<br />
To solve the issues associated with hand-tuned softmax loss functions and AM-LFS, the authors attempt to reduce the softmax probability to improve feature discrimination when using margin-based softmax loss functions. The development of margin-based softmax loss with only one parameter required and an improved search space using a reward-based method which allows the authors to determine the best option for their loss function.<br />
<br />
== Problem Formulation ==<br />
=== Analysis of Margin-based Softmax Loss ===<br />
Based on the softmax probability and the margin-based softmax probability, the following function can be developed [1]:<br />
<br />
<center><math>p_m=\frac{1}{ap+(1-a)}*p</math></center><br />
<center> where <math>a=1-e^{s{cos{(\theta_{w_y},x)}-f{(m,\theta_{w_y},x)}}}</math> and <math>a≤0</math></center><br />
<br />
<math>a</math> is considered as a modulating factor and <math>h{(a,p)}=\frac{1}{ap+(1-a)} \in (0,1]</math> is a modulating function [1]. Therefore, regardless of the margin function (<math>f</math>), the minimization of the softmax probability will ensure success.<br />
<br />
Compared to AM-LFS, this method involves only one parameter (<math>a</math>) that is also constrained, versus AM-LFS which has 2M parameters without constraints that specify the piecewise linear functions the method requires. Also, the piecewise linear functions of AM-LFS (<math>p_m={a_i}p+b_i</math>) may not be discriminative because it could be larger than the softmax probability.<br />
<br />
=== Random Search ===<br />
Unified formulation <math>L_5</math> is generated by inserting a simple modulating function <math>h{(a,p)}=\frac{1}{ap+(1-a)}</math> into the original softmax loss. It can be written as below [1]:<br />
<br />
<center><math>L_5=-log{(h{(a,p)}*p)}</math> where <math>h \in (0,1]</math> and <math>a≤0</math></center><br />
<br />
This encourages the feature margin between different classes and has the capability of feature discrimination. This leads to defining the search space as the choice of <math>h{(a,p)}</math> whose impacts on the training procedure are decided by the modulating factor <math>a</math>. In order to validate the unified formulation, a modulating factor is randomly set at each training epoch. This is noted as Random-Softmax in this paper.<br />
<br />
=== Reward-Guided Search ===<br />
Unlike supervised learning, reinforcement learning (RL) is a behavioral learning model. It does not need to have input/output labelled and it does not need a sub-optimal action to be explicitly corrected. The algorithm receives feedback from the data to achieve the best outcome. The system has an agent that guides the process by taking an action that maximizes the notion of cumulative reward [3]. The process of RL is shown in figure 1. The equation of the cumulative reward function is: <br />
<br />
<center><math>G_t \overset{\Delta}{=} R_t+R_{t+1}+R_{t+2}+⋯+R_T</math></center><br />
<br />
where <math>G_t</math> = cumulative reward, <math>R_t</math> = immediate reward, and <math>R_T</math> = end of episode.<br />
<br />
<math>G_t</math> is the sum of immediate rewards from arbitrary time <math>t</math>. It is a random variable because it depends on the immediate reward which depends on the agent action and the environment's reaction to this action.<br />
<br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Figure1.png|300px |link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning#/media/File:Reinforcement_learning_diagram.svg |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<center>Figure 1: Reinforcement Learning scenario [4]</center><br />
<br />
The reward function is what guides the agent to move in a certain direction. As mentioned above, the system receives feedback from the data to achieve the best outcome. This is caused by the reward being edited based on the feedback it receives when a task is completed [5]. <br />
<br />
In this paper, RL is being used to generate a distribution of the hyperparameter <math>\mu</math> for the SoftMax equation using the reward function. At each epoch, <math>B</math> hyper-parameters <math>{a_1, a_2, ..., a_B }</math> are sampled as <math>a \sim \mathcal{N}(\mu, \sigma)</math>. In each epoch, <math>B</math> models are generated with rewards <math>R(a_i), i \in [1, B]</math>. <math>\mu</math> updates after each epoch from the reward function. <br />
<br />
<center><math>\mu_{e+1}=\mu_e + \eta \frac{1}{B} \sum_{i=1}^B R{(a_i)}{\nabla_a}log{(g(a_i;\mu,\sigma))}</math></center><br />
<br />
=== Optimization ===<br />
Calculating the reward involves a standard bi-level optimization problem. A standard bi-level optimization problem is a hierarchy of two optimization tasks, an upper-level or leader and lower-level or follower problems, which involves a hyperparameter ({<math>a_1,a_2,…,a_B</math>}) that can be used for minimizing one objective function while maximizing another objective function simultaneously:<br />
<br />
<center><math>max_a R(a)=r(M_{w^*(a)},S_v)</math></center><br />
<center><math>w^*(a)=_w \sum_{(x,y) \in S_t} L^a (M_w(x),y)</math></center><br />
<br />
In this case, the loss function takes the training set <math>S_t</math> and the reward function takes the validation set <math>S_v</math>. The weights <math>w</math> are trained such that the loss function is minimized while the reward function is maximized. The calculated reward for each model ({<math>M_{we1},M_{we2},…,M_{weB}</math>}) yields the corresponding score, then the algorithm chooses the one with the highest score for model index selection. With the model containing the highest score being used in the next epoch, this process is repeated until the training reaches convergence. In the end, the algorithm takes the model with the highest score without retraining.<br />
<br />
== Results and Discussion ==<br />
=== Data Preprocessing ===<br />
The training datasets consisted of cleaned versions of CASIA-WebFace and MS-Celeb-1M-v1c to remove the impact of noisy labels in the original sets.<br />
Furthermore, it is important to perform open-set evaluation for face recognition problem. That is, there shall be no overlapping identities between training and testing sets. As a result, there were a total of 15,414 identities removed from the testing sets. For fairness during comparison, all summarized results will be based on refined datasets.<br />
<br />
=== Results on LFW, SLLFW, CALFW, CPLFW, AgeDB, DFP ===<br />
For LFW, there is not a noticeable difference between the algorithms proposed in this paper and the other algorithms, however, AM-Softmax achieved higher results than Search-Softmax. Random-Softmax achieved the highest results by 0.03%.<br />
<br />
Random-Softmax outperforms baseline Soft-max and is comparable to most of the margin-based softmax. Search-Softmax boost the performance and better most methods specifically when training CASIA-WebFace-R data set, it achieves 0.72% average improvement over AM-Softmax. The reason the model proposed by the paper gives better results is because of their optimization strategy which helps boost the discimination power. Also the sampled candidate from the paper’s proposed search space can well approximate the margin-based loss functions. More tests need to happen to more complicated protocols to test the performance further. Not a lot of improvement has been shown on those test sets, since they are relatively simple and the performance of all the methods on these test sets are near saturation. The following table gives a summary of the performance of each model.<br />
<br />
<center>Table 1.Verification performance (%) of different methods on the test sets LFW, SLLFW, CALFW, CPLFW, AgeDB and CFP. The training set is '''CASIA-WebFace-R''' [1].</center><br />
<br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Table1.png|900px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<br />
=== Results on RFW ===<br />
The RFW dataset measures racial bias which consists of Caucasian, Indian, Asian, and African. Using this as the test set, Random-softmax and Search-softmax performed better than the other methods. Random-softmax outperforms the baseline softmax by a large margin which means reducing the softmax probability will enhance the feature discrimination for face recognition. It is also observed that the reward guided search-softmax method is more likely to enhance the discriminative feature learning resulting in higher performance as shown in Table 2 and Table 3. <br />
<br />
<center>Table 2. Verification performance (%) of different methods on the test set RFW. The training set is '''CASIA-WebFace-R''' [1].</center><br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Table2.png|500px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<br />
<br />
<center>Table 3. Verification performance (%) of different methods on the test set RFW. The training set is '''MS-Celeb-1M-v1c-R''' [1].</center><br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Table3.png|500px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<br />
=== Results on MegaFace and Trillion-Pairs ===<br />
The different loss functions are tested again with more complicated protocols. The identification (Id.) Rank-1 and the verification (Veri.) with the true positive rate (TPR) at low false acceptance rate (FAR) at <math>1e-3</math> on MegaFace, the identification TPR@FAR = <math>1e-6</math> and the verification TPR@FAR = <math>1e-9</math> on Trillion-Pairs are reported on Table 4 and 5.<br />
<br />
On the test sets MegaFace and Trillion-Pairs, Search-softmax achieves the best performance over all other alternative methods. On MegaFace, Search-softmax beat the best competitor AM-softmax by a large margin. It also outperformed AM-LFS due to new designed search space. <br />
<br />
<center>Table 4. Performance (%) of different loss functions on the test sets MegaFace and Trillion-Pairs. The training set is '''CASIA-WebFace-R''' [1].</center><br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Table4.png|450px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<br />
<br />
<center>Table 5. Performance (%) of different loss functions on the test sets MegaFace and Trillion-Pairs. The training set is '''MS-Celeb-1M-v1c-R''' [1].</center><br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Table5.png|450px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<br />
From the CMC curves and ROC curves in Figure 2, similar trends are observed at other measures. There is a same trend on Trillion-Pairs where Search-softmax loss is found to be superior with 4% improvements with CASIA-WebFace-R and 1% improvements with MS-Celeb-1M-v1c-R at both the identification and verification. Based on these experiments, Search-Softmax loss can perform well, especially with a low false positive rate and it shows a strong generalization ability for face recognition.<br />
<br />
<center>[[Image:G25_Figure2_left.png|800px |alt=Alt text|Title text]] [[Image:G25_Figure2_right.png|800px |alt=Alt text|Title text]]</center><br />
<center>Figure 2. From Left to Right: CMC curves and ROC curves on MegaFace Set with training set CASIA-WebFace-R, CMC curves and ROC curves on MegaFace Set with training set MS-Celeb-1M-v1c-R [1].</center><br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
In this paper, it is discussed that in order to enhance feature discrimination for face recognition, it is key to know how to reduce the softmax probability. To achieve this goal, unified formulation for the margin-based softmax losses is designed. Two search methods have been developed using a random and a reward-guided loss function and they were validated to be effective over six other methods using nine different test data sets. While these developed methods were generally more effective in increasing accuracy versus previous methods, there is very little difference between the two. It can be seen that Search-Softmax performs slightly better than Random-Softmax most of the time.<br />
<br />
== Critiques ==<br />
* Thorough experimentation and comparison of results to state-of-the-art provided a convincing argument.<br />
* Datasets used did require some preprocessing, which may have improved the results beyond what the method otherwise would.<br />
* AM-LFS was created by the authors for experimentation (the code was not made public) so the comparison may not be accurate.<br />
* The test data set they used to test Search-Softmax and Random-Softmax are simple and they saturate in other methods. So the results of their methods didn’t show many advantages since they produce very similar results. A more complicated data set needs to be tested to prove the method's reliability.<br />
* There is another paper Large-Margin Softmax Loss for Convolutional Neural Networks[https://arxiv.org/pdf/1612.02295.pdf] that provides a more detailed explanation about how to reduce margin-based softmax loss.<br />
* It is questionable when it comes to the accuracy of testing sets, as they only used the clean version of CASIA-WebFace and MS-Celeb-1M-vlc for training instead of these two training sets with noisy labels.<br />
* In a similar [https://arxiv.org/pdf/1905.09773.pdf?utm_source=thenewstack&utm_medium=website&utm_campaign=platform paper], written by Tae-Hyun Oh et al., they also discuss an optimal loss function for face recognition. However, since in the other paper, they were doing face recognition from voice audio, the loss function used was slightly different than the ones discussed in this paper.<br />
* This model has many applications such as identifying disguised prisoners for police. But we need to do a good data preprocessing otherwise we might not get a good predicted result. But authors did not mention about the data preprocessing which is a key part of this model.<br />
* It will be better if we can know what kind of noises was removed in the clean version. Also, simply removing the overlapping data is wasteful. It would be better to just put them into one of the train and test samples.<br />
* This paper indicate that the new searching method and loss function have induced more effective face recognition result than other six methods. But there is no mention of the increase or decrease in computational efficiency since only very little difference exist between those methods and the real time evaluation is often required at the face recognition application level.<br />
* There are some loss functions that receives more than 2 inputs. For example, the ''triplet loss'' function, developed by Google, takes 3 inputs: positive input, negative input and anchor input. This makes sense because for face recognition, we want to model to learn not only what it is supposed to predict but also what it is not supposed to predict. Typically, triplet loss handles false positives much better. This paper can extend its scope to such loss function that takes more than 2 inputs.<br />
* It would be good to also know what the training time is like for the method, specifically the "Reward-Guided Search" which uses RL. Also the authors mention some data preprocessing that was performed, was this same preprocessing also performed for the methods they compared against?<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] X. Wang, S. Wang, C. Chi, S. Zhang and T. Mei, "Loss Function Search for Face Recognition", in International Conference on Machine Learning, 2020, pp. 1-10.<br />
<br />
[2] Li, C., Yuan, X., Lin, C., Guo, M., Wu, W., Yan, J., and Ouyang, W. Am-lfs: Automl for loss function search. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 8410–8419, 2019.<br />
2020].<br />
<br />
[3] S. L. AI, “Reinforcement Learning algorithms - an intuitive overview,” Medium, 18-Feb-2019. [Online]. Available: https://medium.com/@SmartLabAI/reinforcement-learning-algorithms-an-intuitive-overview-904e2dff5bbc. [Accessed: 25-Nov-2020]. <br />
<br />
[4] “Reinforcement learning,” Wikipedia, 17-Nov-2020. [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement_learning. [Accessed: 24-Nov-2020].<br />
<br />
[5] B. Osiński, “What is reinforcement learning? The complete guide,” deepsense.ai, 23-Jul-2020. [Online]. Available: https://deepsense.ai/what-is-reinforcement-learning-the-complete-guide/. [Accessed: 25-Nov-2020].</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48902Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:57:22Z<p>J632liu: /* Experiments */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST, we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index 1 and the rest 0. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, <math>\beta</math>, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of <math>\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})</math>, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. We will first demonstrate improvements provided by BM, then we will show versatility in other applications. For fairness of comparisons, all configurations in the reference implementation will be fixed. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48897Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:50:17Z<p>J632liu: /* On Prior Distributions */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST, we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index 1 and the rest 0. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, <math>\beta</math>, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of <math>\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})</math>, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48896Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:48:44Z<p>J632liu: /* On Prior Distributions */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST, we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index 1 and the rest 0. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, <math>\beta</math>, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48895Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:48:31Z<p>J632liu: /* On Prior Distributions */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST, we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index 1 and the rest 0. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, <math>\beta<\math>, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48894Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:43:51Z<p>J632liu: /* Classification With a Neural Network */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST, we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index 1 and the rest 0. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, $\beta$, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48893Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:42:37Z<p>J632liu: /* Classification With a Neural Network */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notations for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST: we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index $1$ and the rest $0$. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, $\beta$, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48892Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:42:17Z<p>J632liu: /* Classification With a Neural Network */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>, the <math>KL</math> divergence between the true distribution and the distribution modeled by NN, that is:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notation for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST: we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index $1$ and the rest $0$. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, $\beta$, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48890Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:39:29Z<p>J632liu: /* Classification With a Neural Network */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;|\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notation for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST: we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index $1$ and the rest $0$. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, $\beta$, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability&diff=48888Being Bayesian about Categorical Probability2020-12-02T17:19:45Z<p>J632liu: /* Constructing Target Distribution */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented By ==<br />
Evan Li, Jason Pu, Karam Abuaisha, Nicholas Vadivelu<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
Since the outputs of neural networks are not probabilities, Softmax (Bridle, 1990) is a staple for neural network’s performing classification--it exponentiates each logit then normalizes by the sum, giving a distribution over the target classes. However, networks with softmax outputs give no information about uncertainty (Blundell et al., 2015; Gal & Ghahramani, 2016), and the resulting distribution over classes is poorly calibrated (Guo et al., 2017), often giving overconfident predictions even when the classification is wrong. In addition, softmax also raises concerns about overfitting NNs due to its confident predictive behaviors(Xie et al., 2016; Pereyra et al., 2017). To achieve better generalization performance, this may require some effective regularization techniques. <br />
<br />
Bayesian Neural Networks (BNNs; MacKay, 1992) can alleviate these issues, but the resulting posteriors over the parameters are often intractable. Approximations such as variational inference (Graves, 2011; Blundell et al., 2015) and Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) can still be expensive or give poor estimates for the posteriors. This work proposes a Bayesian treatment of the output logits of the neural network, treating the targets as a categorical random variable instead of a fixed label. This gives a computationally cheap way to get well-calibrated uncertainty estimates on neural network classifications.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Using Bayesian Neural Networks is the dominant way of applying Bayesian techniques to neural networks. Many techniques have been developed to make posterior approximation more accurate and scalable, despite these, BNNs do not scale to the state of the art techniques or large data sets. There are techniques to explicitly avoid modeling the full weight posterior is more scalable, such as with Monte Carlo Dropout (Gal & Ghahramani, 2016) or tracking mean/covariance of the posterior during training (Mandt et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018; Maddox et al., 2019; Osawa et al., 2019). Non-Bayesian uncertainty estimation techniques such as deep ensembles (Lakshminarayanan et al., 2017) and temperature scaling (Guo et al., 2017; Neumann et al., 2018).<br />
<br />
== Preliminaries ==<br />
=== Definitions ===<br />
Let's formalize our classification problem and define some notations for the rest of this summary:<br />
<br />
::Dataset:<br />
$$ \mathcal D = \{(x_i,y_i)\} \in (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)^N $$<br />
::General classification model<br />
$$ f^W: \mathcal X \to \mathbb R^K $$<br />
::Softmax function: <br />
$$ \phi(x): \mathbb R^K \to [0,1]^K \;\;|\;\; \phi_k(X) = \frac{\exp(f_k^W(x))}{\sum_{k \in K} \exp(f_k^W(x))} $$<br />
::Softmax activated NN:<br />
$$ \phi \;\circ\; f^W: \chi \to \Delta^{K-1} $$<br />
::NN as a true classifier:<br />
$$ arg\max_i \;\circ\; \phi_i \;\circ\; f^W \;:\; \mathcal X \to \mathcal Y $$<br />
<br />
We'll also define the '''count function''' - a <math>K</math>-vector valued function that outputs the occurences of each class coincident with <math>x</math>:<br />
$$ c^{\mathcal D}(x) = \sum_{(x',y') \in \mathcal D} \mathbb y' I(x' = x) $$<br />
<br />
=== Classification With a Neural Network ===<br />
A typical loss function used in classification is cross-entropy. It's well known that optimizing <math>f^W</math> for <math>l_{CE}</math> is equivalent to optimizing for <math>l_{KL}</math>:<br />
$$ l_{KL}(W) = KL(\text{true distribution} \;||\; \text{distribution encoded by }NN(W)) $$<br />
Let's introduce notation for the underlying (true) distributions of our problem. Let <math>(x_0,y_0) \sim (\mathcal X \times \mathcal Y)</math>:<br />
$$ \text{Full Distribution} = F(x,y) = P(x_0 = x,y_0 = y) $$<br />
$$ \text{Marginal Distribution} = P(x) = F(x_0 = x) $$<br />
$$ \text{Point Class Distribution} = P(y_0 = y \;|\; x_0 = x) = F_x(y) $$<br />
Then we have the following factorization:<br />
$$ F(x,y) = P(x,y) = P(y|x)P(x) = F_x(y)F(x) $$<br />
Substitute this into the definition of KL divergence:<br />
$$ = \sum_{(x,y) \in \mathcal X \times \mathcal Y} F(x,y) \log\left(\frac{F(x,y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))}\right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F(y|x) \log\left( \frac{F(y|x)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) \sum_{y \in \mathcal Y} F_x(y) \log\left( \frac{F_x(y)}{\phi_y(f^W(x))} \right) $$<br />
$$ = \sum_{x \in \mathcal X} F(x) KL(F_x \;||\; \phi\left( f^W(x) \right)) $$<br />
As usual, we don't have an analytic form for <math>l</math> (if we did, this would imply we know <math>F_X</math> meaning we knew the distribution in the first place). Instead, estimate from <math>\mathcal D</math>:<br />
$$ F(x) \approx \hat F(x) = \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} $$<br />
$$ F_x(y) \approx \hat F_x(y) = \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{|| c^{\mathcal D}(x) ||_1}$$<br />
$$ \to l_{KL}(W) = \sum_{x \in \mathcal D} \frac{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1}{N} KL \left( \frac{c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \;||\; \phi(f^W(x)) \right) $$<br />
The approximations <math>\hat F, \hat F_X</math> are often not very good though: consider a typical classification such as MNIST: we would never expect two handwritten digits to produce the exact same image. Hence <math>c^{\mathcal D}(x)</math> is (almost) always going to have a single index $1$ and the rest $0$. This has implications for our approximations:<br />
$$ \hat F(x) \text{ is uniform for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
$$ \hat F_x(y) \text{ is degenerate for all } x \in \mathcal D $$<br />
This clearly has implications for overfitting: to minimize the KL term in <math>l_{KL}(W)</math> we want <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> to be very close to <math>\hat F_x(y)</math> at each point - this means that the loss function is in fact encouraging the neural network to output near degenerate distributions! One form of regularization to help this problem is called label smoothing. Instead of using the degenerate $F_x(y)$ as a target function, let's "smooth" it (by adding a scaled uniform distribution to it) so it's no longer degenerate:<br />
$$ F'_x(y) = (1-\lambda)\hat F_x(y) + \frac \lambda K \vec 1 $$<br />
<br />
== Method ==<br />
The main technical proposal of the paper is a Bayesian framework to estimate the (former) target distribution <math>F_x(y)</math>. That is, we construct a posterior distribution of <math> F_x(y) </math> and use that as our new target distribution. We call it the ''belief matching'' (BM) framework.<br />
<br />
=== Constructing Target Distribution ===<br />
Recall that <math>F_x(y)</math> is a k-categorical probability distribution - it's PMF can be fully characterized by k numbers that sum to 1. Hence we can encode any such <math>F_x</math> as a point in <math>\Delta^{k-1}</math>. We'll do exactly that - let's call this vecor <math>z</math>:<br />
$$ z \in \Delta^{k-1} $$<br />
$$ \text{prior} = p_{z|x}(z) $$<br />
$$ \text{conditional} = p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
$$ \text{posterior} = p_{z|x,y}(z) $$<br />
Then if we perform inference:<br />
$$ p_{z|x,y}(z) \propto p_{z|x}(z)p_{y|z,x}(y) $$<br />
The distribution chosen to model prior was <math>dir_K(\beta)</math>:<br />
$$ p_{z|x}(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\beta||_1)}{\prod_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\beta_k)} \prod_{k=1}^K z_k^{\beta_k - 1} $$<br />
Note that by definition of <math>z</math>: <math> p_{y|x,z} = z_y </math>. Since the Dirichlet is a conjugate prior to categorical distributions we have a convenient form for the mean of the posterior:<br />
$$ \bar{p_{z|x,y}}(z) = \frac{\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)}{||\beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x)||_1} \propto \beta + c^{\mathcal D}(x) $$<br />
This is in fact a generalization of (uniform) label smoothing (label smoothing is a special case where <math>\beta = \frac 1 K \vec{1} </math>).<br />
<br />
=== Representing Approximate Distribution ===<br />
Our new target distribution is <math>p_{z|x,y}(z)</math> (as opposed to <math>F_x(y)</math>). That is, we want to construct an interpretation of our neural network weights to construct a distribution with support in <math> \Delta^{K-1} </math> - the NN can then be trained so this encoded distribution closely approximates <math>p_{z|x,y}</math>. Let's denote the PMF of this encoded distribution <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>. This is how the BM framework defines it:<br />
$$ \alpha^W(x) := \exp(f^W(x)) $$<br />
$$ q_{z|x}^W(z) = \frac{\Gamma(||\alpha^W(x)||_1)}{\sum_{k=1}^K \Gamma(\alpha_k^W(x))} \prod_{k=1}^K z_{k}^{\alpha_k^W(x) - 1} $$<br />
$$ \to Z^W_x \sim dir(\alpha^W(x)) $$<br />
Apply <math>\log</math> then <math>\exp</math> to <math>q_{z|x}^W</math>:<br />
$$ q^W_{z|x}(z) \propto \exp \left( \sum_k (\alpha_k^W(x) \log(z_k)) - \sum_k \log(z_k) \right) $$<br />
$$ \propto -l_{CE}(\phi(f^W(x)),z) + \frac{K}{||\alpha^W(x)||}KL(\mathcal U_k \;||\; z) $$<br />
It can actually be shown that the mean of <math>Z_x^W</math> is identical to <math>\phi(f^W(x))</math> - in other words, if we output the mean of the encoded distribution of our neural network under the BM framework, it is theoretically identical to a traditional neural network.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution Matching ===<br />
<br />
We now need a way to fit our approximate distribution from our neural network <math>q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}</math> to our target distribution <math>p_{\mathbf{z|x},y}</math>. The authors achieve this by maximizing the evidence lower bound (ELBO):<br />
<br />
$$l_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) $$<br />
<br />
Each term can be computed analytically:<br />
<br />
$$\mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W }} \left[\log z_y \right] = \psi(\alpha_y^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W} ( \mathbf x )) $$<br />
<br />
Where <math>\psi(\cdot)</math> represents the digamma function (logarithmic derivative of gamma function). Intuitively, we maximize the probability of the correct label. For the KL term:<br />
<br />
$$KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; p_{\mathbf{z|x}}) = \log \frac{\Gamma(a_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) \prod_k \Gamma(\beta_k)}{\prod_k \Gamma(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)) \Gamma (\beta_0)} + \sum_k (\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(x)-\beta_k)(\psi(\alpha_k^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) - \psi(\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) $$<br />
<br />
In the first term, for intuition, we can ignore <math>\alpha_0</math> and <math>\beta_0</math> since those just calibrate the distributions. Otherwise, we want the ratio of the products to be as close to 1 as possible to minimize the KL. In the second term, we want to minimize the difference between each individual <math>\alpha_k</math> and <math>\beta_k</math>, scaled by the normalized output of the neural network. <br />
<br />
This loss function can be used as a drop-in replacement for the standard softmax cross-entropy, as it has an analytic form and the same time complexity as typical softmax-cross entropy with respect to the number of classes (<math>O(K)</math>).<br />
<br />
=== On Prior Distributions ===<br />
<br />
We must choose our concentration parameter, $\beta$, for our dirichlet prior. We see our prior essentially disappears as <math>\beta_0 \to 0</math> and becomes stronger as <math>\beta_0 \to \infty</math>. Thus, we want a small <math>\beta_0</math> so the posterior isn't dominated by the prior. But, the authors claim that a small <math>\beta_0</math> makes <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small, which causes <math>\psi (\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x))</math> to be large, which is problematic for gradient based optimization. In practice, many neural network techniques aim to make <math>\mathbb E [f^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 0</math> and thus <math>\mathbb E [\alpha^{\mathbf W} (\mathbf x)] \approx \mathbf 1</math>, which means making <math>\alpha_0^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)</math> small can be counterproductive.<br />
<br />
So, the authors set <math>\beta = \mathbf 1</math> and introduce a new hyperparameter <math>\lambda</math> which is multiplied with the KL term in the ELBO:<br />
<br />
$$l^\lambda_{EB}(\mathbf y, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf x)) = \mathbb E_{q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf{W}}} \left[\log p(\mathbf {y | x, z})\right] - \lambda KL (q_{\mathbf{z | x}}^{\mathbf W} \; || \; \mathcal P^D (\mathbf 1)) $$<br />
<br />
This stabilizes the optimization, as we can tell from the gradients:<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf {x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\beta_{k}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{k}^{\mathbf{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)<br />
-\left(1-\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})-\beta_{0}\right)\right) \psi^{\prime}\left(\alpha_{0}^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})\right)$$<br />
<br />
$$\frac{\partial l_{E B}^{\lambda}\left(\mathbf{y}, \alpha^{\mathbf{W}}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\partial \alpha_{k}^{W}(\mathbf{x})}=\left(\tilde{\mathbf{y}}_{k}-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda\right)\right) \frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}<br />
-\left(1-\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{W}(\mathbf{x})-\lambda K\right)\right)$$<br />
<br />
As we can see, the first expression is affected by the magnitude of $\alpha^{\boldsymbol{W}}(\boldsymbol{x})$, whereas the second expression is not due to the <math>\frac{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{k}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}{\psi^{\prime}\left(\tilde{\alpha}_{0}^{\mathbf W}(\mathbf{x})\right)}</math> ratio.<br />
<br />
== Experiments ==<br />
<br />
Throughout the experiments in this paper, the authors employ various models based on residual connections (He et al., 2016 [1]) which are the models used for benchmarking in practice. The only additions in the experiments are initial learning rate warm-up and gradient clipping which are extremely helpful for stable training of BM. <br />
<br />
=== Generalization performance === <br />
The paper compares the generalization performance of BM with softmax and MC dropout on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 benchmarks.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T1.png]]<br />
<br />
The next comparison was performed between BM and softmax on the ImageNet benchmark. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_T2.png]]<br />
<br />
For both datasets and In all configurations, BM achieves the best generalization and outperforms softmax and MC dropout.<br />
<br />
===== Regularization effect of prior =====<br />
<br />
In theory, BM has 2 regularization effects:<br />
The prior distribution, which smooths the target posterior<br />
Averaging all of the possible categorical probabilities to compute the distribution matching loss<br />
The authors perform an ablation study to examine the 2 effects separately - removing the KL term in the ELBO removes the effect of the prior distribution.<br />
For ResNet-50 on CIFAR-100 and CIFAR-10 the resulting test error rates were 24.69% and 5.68% respectively. <br />
<br />
This demonstrates that both regularization effects are significant since just having one of them improves the generalization performance compared to the softmax baseline, and having both improves the performance even more.<br />
<br />
===== Impact of <math>\beta</math> =====<br />
<br />
The effect of β on generalization performance is studied by training ResNet-18 on CIFAR-10 by tuning the value of β on its own, as well as jointly with λ. It was found that robust generalization performance is obtained for β ∈ [<math>e^{−1}, e^4</math>] when tuning β on its own; and β ∈ [<math>e^{−4}, e^{8}</math>] when tuning β jointly with λ. The figure below shows a plot of the error rate with varying β.<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F3.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Uncertainty Representation ===<br />
<br />
One of the big advantages of BM is the ability to represent uncertainty about the prediction. The authors evaluate the uncertainty representation on in-distribution (ID) and out-of-distribution (OOD) samples. <br />
<br />
===== ID uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
For ID (in-distribution) samples, calibration performance is measured, which is a measure of how well the model’s confidence matches its actual accuracy. This measure can be visualized using reliability plots and quantified using a metric called expected calibration error (ECE). ECE is calculated by grouping predictions into M groups based on their confidence score and then finding the absolute difference between the average accuracy and average confidence for each group.<br />
The figure below is a reliability plot of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10 and CIFAR-100 with 15 groups. It shows that BM has a significantly better calibration performance than softmax since the confidence matches the accuracy more closely (this is also reflected in the lower ECE).<br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F4.png]]<br />
<br />
===== OOD uncertainty =====<br />
<br />
Here, the authors quantify uncertainty using predictive entropy - the larger the predictive entropy, the larger the uncertainty about a prediction. <br />
<br />
The figure below is a density plot of the predictive entropy of ResNet-50 on CIFAR-10. It shows that BM provides significantly better uncertainty estimation compared to other methods since BM is the only method that has a clear peak of high predictive entropy for OOD samples which should have high uncertainty. <br />
<br />
[[File:Being_Bayesian_about_Categorical_Probability_F5.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Transfer learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching applies the Bayesian principle outside the neural network, which means it can easily be applied to already trained models. Thus, belief matching can be employed in transfer learning scenarios. The authors downloaded the ImageNet pre-trained ResNet-50 weights and fine-tuned the weights of the last linear layer for 100 epochs using an Adam optimizer.<br />
<br />
This table shows the test error rates from transfer learning on CIFAR-10, Food-101, and Cars datasets. Belief matching consistently performs better than softmax. <br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning.png]]<br />
<br />
Belief matching was also tested for the predictive uncertainty for out of dataset samples based on CIFAR-10 as the in distribution sample. Looking at the figure below, it is observed that belief matching significantly improves the uncertainty representation of pre-trained models by only fine-tuning the last layer’s weights. Note that belief matching confidently predicts examples in Cars since CIFAR-10 contains the object category automobiles. In comparison, softmax produces confident predictions on all datasets. Thus, belief matching could also be used to enhance the uncertainty representation ability of pre-trained models without sacrificing their generalization performance.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_transfer_learning_uncertainty.png]]<br />
<br />
=== Semi-Supervised Learning ===<br />
<br />
Belief matching’s ability to allow neural networks to represent rich information in their predictions can be exploited to aid consistency based loss function for semi-supervised learning. Consistency-based loss functions use unlabelled samples to determine where to promote the robustness of predictions based on stochastic perturbations. This can be done by perturbing the inputs (which is the VAT model) or the networks (which is the pi-model). Both methods minimize the divergence between two categorical probabilities under some perturbations, thus belief matching can be used by the following replacements in the loss functions. The hope is that belief matching can provide better prediction consistencies using its Dirichlet distributions.<br />
<br />
[[File: being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_equation.png]]<br />
<br />
The results of training on ResNet28-2 with consistency based loss functions on CIFAR-10 are shown in this table. Belief matching does have lower classification error rates compared to using a softmax.<br />
<br />
[[File:being_bayesian_about_categorical_probability_semi_supervised_table.png]]<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
Bayesian principles can be used to construct the target distribution by using the categorical probability as a random variable rather than a training label. This can be applied to neural network models by replacing only the softmax and cross-entropy loss, while improving the generalization performance and uncertainty estimation. <br />
<br />
In the future, the authors would like to allow for more expressive distributions in the belief matching framework, such as logistic normal distributions to capture strong semantic similarities among class labels. Furthermore, using input dependent priors would allow for interesting properties that would aid imbalanced datasets and multi-domain learning.<br />
<br />
== Citations ==<br />
<br />
[1] Bridle, J. S. Probabilistic interpretation of feedforward classification network outputs, with relationships to statistical pattern recognition. In Neurocomputing, pp. 227–236. Springer, 1990.<br />
<br />
[2] Blundell, C., Cornebise, J., Kavukcuoglu, K., and Wierstra, D. Weight uncertainty in neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2015.<br />
<br />
[3] Gal, Y. and Ghahramani, Z. Dropout as a Bayesian approximation: Representing model uncertainty in deep learning. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2016.<br />
<br />
[4] Guo, C., Pleiss, G., Sun, Y., and Weinberger, K. Q. On calibration of modern neural networks. In International Conference on Machine Learning, 2017. <br />
<br />
[5] MacKay, D. J. A practical Bayesian framework for backpropagation networks. Neural Computation, 4(3):448– 472, 1992.<br />
<br />
[6] Graves, A. Practical variational inference for neural networks. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2011. <br />
<br />
[7] Mandt, S., Hoffman, M. D., and Blei, D. M. Stochastic gradient descent as approximate Bayesian inference. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 18(1):4873–4907, 2017.<br />
<br />
[8] Zhang, G., Sun, S., Duvenaud, D., and Grosse, R. Noisy natural gradient as variational inference. In International Conference of Machine Learning, 2018.<br />
<br />
[9] Maddox, W. J., Izmailov, P., Garipov, T., Vetrov, D. P., and Wilson, A. G. A simple baseline for Bayesian uncertainty in deep learning. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[10] Osawa, K., Swaroop, S., Jain, A., Eschenhagen, R., Turner, R. E., Yokota, R., and Khan, M. E. Practical deep learning with Bayesian principles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2019.<br />
<br />
[11] Lakshminarayanan, B., Pritzel, A., and Blundell, C. Simple and scalable predictive uncertainty estimation using deep ensembles. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.<br />
<br />
[12] Neumann, L., Zisserman, A., and Vedaldi, A. Relaxed softmax: Efficient confidence auto-calibration for safe pedestrian detection. In NIPS Workshop on Machine Learning for Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2018.<br />
<br />
[13] Xie, L., Wang, J., Wei, Z., Wang, M., and Tian, Q. Disturblabel: Regularizing cnn on the loss layer. In IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2016.<br />
<br />
[14] Pereyra, G., Tucker, G., Chorowski, J., Kaiser, Ł., and Hinton, G. Regularizing neural networks by penalizing confident output distributions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1701.06548, 2017.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48679Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:25:05Z<p>J632liu: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach, labeling each piece of test data based on its k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples, and the second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 are non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' value for each sample that was solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix <math>W^*</math> that minimizes the loss function is that <math>W^*</math> is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the <math>i^{th}</math> entry and the <math>j^{th}</math> entry is different from that between the <math>j^{th}</math> entry and the <math>i^{th}</math> entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the <math>ij^{th}</math> entry and the <math>ji^{th}</math> entry in <math>W^*</math> and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48678Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:20:35Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 are non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' value for each sample that was solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix <math>W^*</math> that minimizes the loss function is that <math>W^*</math> is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the <math>i^{th}</math> entry and the <math>j^{th}</math> entry is different from that between the <math>j^{th}</math> entry and the <math>i^{th}</math> entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the <math>ij^{th}</math> entry and the <math>ji^{th}</math> entry in <math>W^*</math> and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48677Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:18:52Z<p>J632liu: /* Calculate k for training set */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 are non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' value for each sample that was solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the ith entry and the jth entry is different from that between the jth entry and the ith entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the ijth entry and the jith entry in W* and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48676Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:18:20Z<p>J632liu: /* Train a Decision Tree using k as the label */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' value for each sample that was solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the ith entry and the jth entry is different from that between the jth entry and the ith entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the ijth entry and the jith entry in W* and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48675Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:17:18Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the ith entry and the jth entry is different from that between the jth entry and the ith entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the ijth entry and the jith entry in W* and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48674Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:13:10Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix <math>W^*<math> that minimizes the loss function is that <math>W^*<math> is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the <math>i^{th}<math> entry and the <math>j^{th}<math> entry is different from that between the <math>j^{th}<math> entry and the <math>i^{th}<math> entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the <math>ij^{th}<math> entry and the <math>ji^{th}<math> entry in <math>W*<math> and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48673Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:11:33Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the ith entry and the jth entry is different from that between the jth entry and the ith entry, which makes the resulting W* not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the ijth entry and the jith entry in W* and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48672Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:10:15Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the ''i^{th}'' entry and the $j^{th}$ entry is different from that between the $j^{th}$ entry and the $i^{th}$ entry, which makes the resulting $W^*$ not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the $ij^{th}$ entry and the $ji^{th}$ entry in $W^*$ and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48671Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:09:45Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix W* that minimizes the loss function is that W* is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the $i^{th}$ entry and the $j^{th}$ entry is different from that between the $j^{th}$ entry and the $i^{th}$ entry, which makes the resulting $W^*$ not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the $ij^{th}$ entry and the $ji^{th}$ entry in $W^*$ and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48670Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:08:19Z<p>J632liu: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix $W^*$ that minimizes the loss function is that $W^{*}$ is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the $i^{th}$ entry and the $j^{th}$ entry is different from that between the $j^{th}$ entry and the $i^{th}$ entry, which makes the resulting $W^*$ not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the $ij^{th}$ entry and the $ji^{th}$ entry in $W^*$ and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Efficient_kNN_Classification_with_Different_Numbers_of_Nearest_Neighbors&diff=48669Efficient kNN Classification with Different Numbers of Nearest Neighbors2020-12-01T10:07:19Z<p>J632liu: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Cooper Brooke, Daniel Fagan, Maya Perelman<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Traditional model-based classification approaches first use training observations to fit a model before predicting test samples. In contrast, the model-free k-nearest neighbors (KNNs) method classifies observations with a majority rules approach. The kNN assigns test data to their class containing their k closest training observations (neighbours). This method has become very popular due to its strong performance and simple implementation. <br />
<br />
There are two main approaches to conduct kNN classification. The first is to use a fixed k value to classify all test samples. The second is to use a different k value for each test sample. The former, while easy to implement, has proven to be impractical in machine learning applications. Therefore, interest lies in developing an efficient way to apply a different optimal k value for each test sample. The authors of this paper presented the kTree and k*Tree methods to solve this research question.<br />
<br />
== Previous Work == <br />
<br />
Previous work on finding an optimal fixed k value for all test samples is well-studied. Zhang et al. [1] incorporated a certainty factor measure to solve for an optimal fixed k. This resulted in the conclusion that k should be <math>\sqrt{n}</math> (where n is the number of training samples) when n > 100. The method Song et al.[2] explored involved selecting a subset of the most informative samples from neighbourhoods. Vincent and Bengio [3] took the unique approach of designing a k-local hyperplane distance to solve for k. Premachandran and Kakarala [4] had the solution of selecting a robust k using the consensus of multiple rounds of kNNs. These fixed k methods are valuable however are impractical for data mining and machine learning applications. <br />
<br />
Finding an efficient approach to assigning varied k values has also been previously studied. Tuning approaches such as the ones taken by Zhu et al. as well as Sahugara et al. have been popular. Zhu et al. [5] determined that optimal k values should be chosen using cross validation while Sahugara et al. [6] proposed using Monte Carlo validation to select varied k parameters. Other learning approaches such as those taken by Zheng et al. and Góra and Wojna also show promise. Zheng et al. [7] applied a reconstruction framework to learn suitable k values. Góra and Wojna [8] proposed using rule induction and instance-based learning to learn optimal k-values for each test sample. While all these methods are valid, their processes of either learning varied k values or scanning all training samples are time-consuming.<br />
<br />
== Motivation == <br />
<br />
Due to the previously mentioned drawbacks of fixed-k and current varied-k kNN classification, the paper’s authors sought to design a new approach to solve for different k values. The kTree and k*Tree approach seeks to calculate optimal values of k while avoiding computationally costly steps such as cross-validation.<br />
<br />
A secondary motivation of this research was to ensure that the kTree method would perform better than kNN using fixed values of k given that running costs would be similar in this instance.<br />
<br />
== Approach == <br />
<br />
<br />
=== kTree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed kTree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_1.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
==== Reconstruction ====<br />
<br />
The first step is to use the training samples to reconstruct themselves. The goal of this is to find the matrix of correlations between the training samples themselves, <math>\textbf{W}</math>, such that the distance between an individual training sample and the corresponding correlation vector multiplied by the entire training set is minimized. This least square loss function where <math>\mathbf{X}</math> represents the training set can be written as:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
In addition, an <math>l_1</math> regularization term multiplied by a tuning parameter, <math>\rho_1</math>, is added to ensure that sparse results are generated as the objective is to minimize the number of training samples that will eventually be depended on by the test samples. <br />
<br />
The least square loss function is then further modified to account for samples that have similar values for certain features yielding similar results. After some transformations, this second regularization term that has tuning parameter <math>\rho_2</math> is:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
R(W) = Tr(\textbf{W}^T \textbf{X}^T \textbf{LXW})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
where <math>\mathbf{L}</math> is a Laplacian matrix that indicates the relationship between features.<br />
<br />
This gives a final objective function of:<br />
<br />
$$\begin{aligned}<br />
\mathop{min}_{\textbf{W}} \sum_{i=1}^n ||Xw_i - x_i||^2 + \rho_1||\textbf{W}|| + \rho_2R(\textbf{W})<br />
\end{aligned}$$<br />
<br />
Since this is a convex function, an iterative method can be used to optimize it to find the optimal solution <math>\mathbf{W^*}</math>.<br />
<br />
==== Calculate ''k'' for training set ====<br />
<br />
Each element <math>w_{ij}</math> in <math>\textbf{W*}</math> represents the correlation between the ith and jth training sample so if a value is 0, it can be concluded that the jth training sample has no effect on the ith training sample which means that it should not be used in the prediction of the ith training sample. Consequently, all non-zero values in the <math>w_{.j}</math> vector would be useful in predicting the ith training sample which gives the result that the number of these non-zero elements for each sample is equal to the optimal ''k'' value for each sample.<br />
<br />
For example, if there was a 4x4 training set where <math>\textbf{W*}</math> had the form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_2.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' value for training sample 1 would be 2 since the correlation between training sample 1 and both training samples 2 and 4 is non-zero.<br />
<br />
==== Train a Decision Tree using ''k'' as the label ====<br />
<br />
In a normal decision tree, the target data is the labels themselves. In contrast, in the kTree method, the target data is the optimal ''k'' values for each sample that were solved for in the previous step. So this decision tree has the following form:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_3.png | center | 300x300px]]<br />
<br />
==== Making Predictions for Test Data ====<br />
<br />
The optimal ''k'' values for each testing sample are easily obtainable using the kTree solved for in the previous step. The only remaining step is to predict the labels of the testing samples by finding the majority class of the optimal ''k'' nearest neighbours across '''all''' of the training data.<br />
<br />
=== k*Tree Classification ===<br />
<br />
The proposed k*Tree method is illustrated by the following flow chart:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_4.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
Clearly, this is a very similar approach to the kTree as the k*Tree method attempts to sacrifice very little in predictive power in return for a substantial decrease in complexity when actually implementing the traditional kNN on the testing data once the optimal ''k'' values have been found.<br />
<br />
While all steps previous are the exact same, the k*Tree method not only stores the optimal ''k'' value but also the following information:<br />
<br />
* The training samples that have the same optimal ''k''<br />
* The ''k'' nearest neighbours of the previously identified training samples<br />
* The nearest neighbor of each of the previously identified ''k'' nearest neighbours<br />
<br />
The data stored in each node is summarized in the following figure:<br />
<br />
[[File:Approach_Figure_5.png | center | 800x800px]]<br />
<br />
In the kTree method, predictions were made based on all of the training data, whereas in the k*Tree method, predicting the test labels will only be done using the samples stored in the applicable node of the tree.<br />
<br />
== Experiments == <br />
<br />
In order to assess the performance of the proposed method against existing methods, a number of experiments were performed to measure classification accuracy and run time. The experiments were run on twenty public datasets provided by the UCI Repository of Machine Learning Data, and contained a mix of data types varying in size, in dimensionality, in the number of classes, and in imbalanced nature of the data. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to measure classification accuracy, and the following methods were compared against:<br />
<br />
# k-Nearest Neighbor: The classical kNN approach with k set to k=1,5,10,20 and square root of the sample size [9]; the best result was reported.<br />
# kNN-Based Applicability Domain Approach (AD-kNN) [11]<br />
# kNN Method Based on Sparse Learning (S-kNN) [10]<br />
# kNN Based on Graph Sparse Reconstruction (GS-kNN) [7]<br />
# Filtered Attribute Subspace-based Bagging with Injected Randomness (FASBIR) [12], [13]<br />
# Landmark-based Spectral Clustering kNN (LC-kNN) [14]<br />
<br />
The experimental results were then assessed based on classification tasks that focused on different sample sizes, and tasks that focused on different numbers of features. <br />
<br />
<br />
'''A. Experimental Results on Different Sample Sizes'''<br />
<br />
The running cost and (cross-validation) classification accuracy based on experiments on ten UCI datasets can be seen in Table I below.<br />
<br />
[[File:Table_I_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
The following key results are noted:<br />
* Regarding classification accuracy, the proposed methods (kTree and k*Tree) outperformed kNN, AD-KNN, FASBIR, and LC-kNN on all datasets by 1.5%-4.5%, but had no notable improvements compared to GS-kNN and S-kNN.<br />
* Classification methods which involved learning optimal k-values (for example the proposed kTree and k*Tree methods, or S-kNN, GS-kNN, AD-kNN) outperformed the methods with predefined k-values, such as traditional kNN.<br />
* The proposed k*Tree method had the lowest running cost of all methods. However, the k*Tree method was still outperformed in terms of classification accuracy by GS-kNN and S-kNN, but ran on average 15 000 times faster than either method. In addition, the kTree had the highest accuracy and it's running cost was lower than any other methods except the k*Tree method.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''B. Experimental Results on Different Feature Numbers'''<br />
<br />
The goal of this section was to evaluate the robustness of all methods under differing numbers of features; results can be seen in Table II below. The Fisher score, an algorithm that solves maximum likelihood equations numerically [15], was used to rank and select the most information features in the datasets. <br />
<br />
[[File:Table_II_kNN.png | center | 1000x1000px]]<br />
<br />
From Table II, the proposed kTree and k*Tree approaches outperformed kNN, AD-kNN, FASBIR and LC-KNN when tested for varying feature numbers. The S-kNN and GS-kNN approaches remained the best in terms of classification accuracy, but were greatly outperformed in terms of running cost by k*Tree. The cause for this is that k*Tree only scans a subsample of the training samples for kNN classification, while S-kNN and GS-kNN scan all training samples.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion == <br />
<br />
This paper introduced two novel approaches for kNN classification algorithms that can determine optimal k-values for each test sample. The proposed kTree and k*Tree methods achieve efficient classification by designing a training step that reduces the run time of the test stage. Based on the experimental results for varying sample sizes and differing feature numbers, it was observed that the proposed methods outperformed existing ones in terms of running cost while still achieving similar or better classification accuracies. Future areas of investigation could focus on the improvement of kTree and k*Tree for data with large numbers of features. <br />
<br />
== Critiques == <br />
<br />
*The paper only assessed classification accuracy through cross-validation accuracy. However, it would be interesting to investigate how the proposed methods perform using different metrics, such as AUC, precision-recall curves, or in terms of holdout test data set accuracy. <br />
* The authors addressed that some of the UCI datasets contained imbalance data (such as the Climate and German data sets) while others did not. However, the nature of the class imbalance was not extreme, and the effect of imbalanced data on algorithm performance was not discussed or assessed. Moreover, it would have been interesting to see how the proposed algorithms performed on highly imbalanced datasets in conjunction with common techniques to address imbalance (e.g. oversampling, undersampling, etc.). <br />
*While the authors contrast their ktTee and k*Tree approach with different kNN methods, the paper could contrast their results with more of the approaches discussed in the Related Work section of their paper. For example, it would be interesting to see how the kTree and k*Tree results compared to Góra and Wojna varied optimal k method.<br />
<br />
* The paper conducted an experiment on kNN, AD-kNN, S-kNN, GS-kNN,FASBIR and LC-kNN with different sample sizes and feature numbers. It would be interesting to discuss why the running cost of FASBIR is between that of kTree and k*Tree in figure 21.<br />
<br />
* A different [https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/725/1/012133/pdf paper] also discusses optimizing the K value for the kNN algorithm in clustering. However, this paper suggests using the expectation-maximization algorithm as a means of finding the optimal k value.<br />
<br />
* It would be really helpful if Ktrees method can be explained at the very beginning. The transition from KNN to Ktrees are not very smooth.<br />
<br />
* It would be nice to have comparison of the running costs of different methods to see how much cost the kTree and k*Tree reduced.<br />
<br />
* It would be better to show the key result only on a summary rather than stacking up all results without screening.<br />
<br />
* In the results section, it was mentioned that in the experiment on data sets with different numbers of features, the kTree and k*Tree model did not achieve GS-kNN or S-kNN's accuracies, but was faster in terms of running cost. It might be helpful here if the authors add some more supporting arguments about the benefit of this tradeoff, which appears to be a minor decrease in accuracy for a large improvement in speed. This could further showcase the advantages of the kTree and k*Tree models. More quantitative analysis or real-life scenario examples could be some choices here.<br />
<br />
* An interesting thing to notice while solving for the optimal matrix $$W^*$$ that minimizes the loss function is that $$W^{*}$$ is not necessarily a symmetric matrix. That is, the correlation between the $$i^{th}$$ entry and the $$j^{th}$$ entry is different from that between the $$j^{th}$$ entry and the $$i^{th}$$ entry, which makes the resulting $$W^*$$ not really semantically meaningful. Therefore, it would be interesting if we may set a threshold on the allowing difference between the $$ij^{th}$$ entry and the $$ji^{th}$$ entry in $$W^*$$ and see if this new configuration will give better or worse results compared to current ones, which will provide better insights of the algorithm.<br />
== References == <br />
<br />
[1] C. Zhang, Y. Qin, X. Zhu, and J. Zhang, “Clustering-based missing value imputation for data preprocessing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf., Aug. 2006, pp. 1081–1086.<br />
<br />
[2] Y. Song, J. Huang, D. Zhou, H. Zha, and C. L. Giles, “IKNN: Informative K-nearest neighbor pattern classification,” in Knowledge Discovery in Databases. Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2007, pp. 248–264.<br />
<br />
[3] P. Vincent and Y. Bengio, “K-local hyperplane and convex distance nearest neighbor algorithms,” in Proc. NIPS, 2001, pp. 985–992.<br />
<br />
[4] V. Premachandran and R. Kakarala, “Consensus of k-NNs for robust neighborhood selection on graph-based manifolds,” in Proc. CVPR, Jun. 2013, pp. 1594–1601.<br />
<br />
[5] X. Zhu, S. Zhang, Z. Jin, Z. Zhang, and Z. Xu, “Missing value estimation for mixed-attribute data sets,” IEEE Trans. Knowl. Data Eng., vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 110–121, Jan. 2011.<br />
<br />
[6] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013.<br />
<br />
[7] S. Zhang, M. Zong, K. Sun, Y. Liu, and D. Cheng, “Efficient kNN algorithm based on graph sparse reconstruction,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 356–369.<br />
<br />
[8] X. Zhu, L. Zhang, and Z. Huang, “A sparse embedding and least variance encoding approach to hashing,” IEEE Trans. Image Process., vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 3737–3750, Sep. 2014.<br />
<br />
[9] U. Lall and A. Sharma, “A nearest neighbor bootstrap for resampling hydrologic time series,” Water Resour. Res., vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 679–693, 1996.<br />
<br />
[10] D. Cheng, S. Zhang, Z. Deng, Y. Zhu, and M. Zong, “KNN algorithm with data-driven k value,” in Proc. ADMA, 2014, pp. 499–512.<br />
<br />
[11] F. Sahigara, D. Ballabio, R. Todeschini, and V. Consonni, “Assessing the validity of QSARS for ready biodegradability of chemicals: An applicability domain perspective,” Current Comput.-Aided Drug Design, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 137–147, 2013. <br />
<br />
[12] Z. H. Zhou and Y. Yu, “Ensembling local learners throughmultimodal perturbation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, B, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 725–735, Apr. 2005.<br />
<br />
[13] Z. H. Zhou, Ensemble Methods: Foundations and Algorithms. London, U.K.: Chapman & Hall, 2012.<br />
<br />
[14] Z. Deng, X. Zhu, D. Cheng, M. Zong, and S. Zhang, “Efficient kNN classification algorithm for big data,” Neurocomputing, vol. 195, pp. 143–148, Jun. 2016.<br />
<br />
[15] K. Tsuda, M. Kawanabe, and K.-R. Müller, “Clustering with the fisher score,” in Proc. NIPS, 2002, pp. 729–736.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Music_Recommender_System_Based_using_CRNN&diff=48540Music Recommender System Based using CRNN2020-11-30T21:44:23Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques/ Insights: */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Introduction and Objective:==<br />
<br />
In the digital era of music streaming, companies, such as Spotify and Pandora, are faced with the following challenge: can they provide users with relevant and personalized music recommendations amidst the ever-growing abundance of music and user data.<br />
<br />
The objective of this paper is to implement a personalized music recommender system that takes user listening history as input and continually finds new music that captures individual user preferences.<br />
<br />
This paper argues that a music recommendation system should vary from the general recommendation system used in practice since it should combine music feature recognition and audio processing technologies to extract music features, and combine them with data on user preferences.<br />
<br />
The authors of this paper took a content-based music approach to build the recommendation system - specifically, comparing the similarity of features based on the audio signal.<br />
<br />
The following two-method approach for building the recommendation system was followed:<br />
#Make recommendations including genre information extracted from classification algorithms.<br />
#Make recommendations without genre information.<br />
<br />
The authors used convolutional recurrent neural networks (CRNN), which is a combination of convolutional neural networks (CNN) and recurrent neural network(RNN), as their main classification model.<br />
<br />
==Methods and Techniques:==<br />
Generally, a music recommender can be divided into three main parts: (I) users, (ii) items, and (iii) user-item matching algorithms. First, we generated users' music tastes based on their profiles. Second, item profiling includes editorial, cultural, and acoustic metadata were collected for listeners' satisfaction. Finally, we come to the matching algorithm that suggests recommended personalized music to listeners. <br />
<br />
To classify music, the original music’s audio signal is converted into a spectrogram image. Using the image and the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT), we convert the data into the Mel scale which is used in the CNN and CRNN models. <br />
=== Mel Scale: === <br />
The scale of pitches that are heard by listeners, which translates to equal pitch increments.<br />
<br />
[[File:Mel.png|frame|none|Mel Scale on Spectrogram]]<br />
<br />
=== Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT): ===<br />
The transformation that determines the sinusoidal frequency of the audio, with a Hanning smoothing function. In the continuous case this is written as: <math>\mathbf{STFT}\{x(t)\}(\tau,\omega) \equiv X(\tau, \omega) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} x(t) w(t-\tau) e^{-i \omega t} \, d t </math><br />
<br />
where: <math>w(\tau)</math> is the Hanning smoothing function<br />
<br />
=== Convolutional Neural Network (CNN): ===<br />
A Convolutional Neural Network is a Neural Network that uses convolution in place of matrix multiplication for some layer calculations. By training the data, weights for inputs are updated to find the most significant data relevant to classification. These convolutional layers gather small groups of data and with kernels, and try to find patterns that can help find features in the overall data. The features are then used for classification. Padding is also used to maintain the data on the edges. The image on the left represents the mathematical expression of a convolution operation, while the right image demonstrates an application of a kernel on the data.<br />
<br />
[[File:Convolution.png|thumb|400px|left|Convolution Operation]]<br />
[[File:PaddingKernels.png|thumb|400px|center|Example of Padding (white 0s) and Kernels (blue square)]]<br />
<br />
=== Convolutional Recurrent Neural Network (CRNN): === <br />
Similar Neural Network as CNN, with the addition of a GRU, which is a Recurrent Neural Network (RNN). An RNN is used to treat sequential data, by reusing the activation function of previous nodes to update the output. A Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) is used to store more long-term memory and will help train the early hidden layers.<br />
<br />
[[File:GRU441.png|thumb|400px|left|Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU)]]<br />
[[File:Recurrent441.png|thumb|400px|center|Diagram of General Recurrent Neural Network]]<br />
<br />
==Data Screening:==<br />
<br />
The authors of this paper used a publicly available music dataset made up of 25,000 30-second songs from the Free Music Archives which contain 16 different genres. The data is cleaned up by removing low audio quality songs, wrong labelled genre and those that has multiple genres. To ensure a balanced dataset, only 1000 songs each from the genres of classical, electronic, folk, hip-hop, instrumental, jazz and rock were used in the final model. <br />
<br />
[[File:Data441.png|thumb|200px|none|Data sorted by music genre]]<br />
<br />
==Implementation:==<br />
<br />
=== Modeling Neural Networks ===<br />
<br />
As noted previously, both CNNs and CRNNs were used to model the data. The advantage of CRNNs is that they are able to model time sequence patterns in addition to frequency features from the spectrogram, allowing for greater identification of important features. Furthermore, feature vectors produced before the classification stage could be used to improve accuracy. <br />
<br />
In implementing the neural networks, the Mel-spectrogram data was split up into training, validation, and test sets at a ratio of 8:1:1 respectively and labelled via one-hot encoding. This made it possible for the categorical data to be labelled correctly for binary classification. As opposed to classical stochastic gradient descent, the authors opted to use Adam optimization to update weights in the training phase. Binary cross-entropy was used as the loss function. <br />
<br />
In both the CNN and CRNN models, the data was trained over 100 epochs with a binary cross-entropy loss function. Notable model specific details are below:<br />
<br />
'''CNN'''<br />
* Five convolutional layers with 3x3 kernel, stride 1, padding, batch normalization, and ReLU activation<br />
* Max pooling layers <br />
* The sigmoid function was used as the output layer<br />
<br />
'''CRNN'''<br />
* Four convolutional layers with 3x3 kernel, stride 1, padding, batch normalization, ReLU activation, and dropout rate 0.1<br />
* Max pooling layers <br />
* Two GRU layers<br />
* The sigmoid function was used as the output layer<br />
<br />
The CNN and CRNN architecture is also given in the charts below.<br />
<br />
[[File:CNN441.png|thumb|800px|none|Implementation of CNN Model]]<br />
[[File:CRNN441.png|thumb|800px|none|Implementation of CRNN Model]]<br />
<br />
=== Music Recommendation System ===<br />
<br />
The recommendation system is computed by the cosine similarity of the extraction features from the neural network. Each genre will have a song act as a centre point for each class. The final inputs of the trained neural networks will be the feature variables. The featured variables will be used in the cosine similarity to find the best recommendations. <br />
<br />
The values are between [-1,1], where larger values are songs that have similar features. When the user inputs five songs, those songs become the new inputs in the neural networks and the features are used by the cosine similarity with other music. The largest five cosine similarities are used as recommendations.<br />
[[File:Cosine441.png|frame|100px|none|Cosine Similarity]]<br />
<br />
== Evaluation Metrics ==<br />
=== Precision: ===<br />
* The proportion of True Positives with respect to the '''predicted''' positive cases (true positives and false positives)<br />
* For example, out of all the songs that the classifier '''predicted''' as Classical, how many are actually Classical?<br />
* Describes the rate at which the classifier predicts the true genre of songs among those predicted to be of that certain genre<br />
<br />
=== Recall: ===<br />
* The proportion of True Positives with respect to the '''actual''' positive cases (true positives and false negatives)<br />
* For example, out of all the songs that are '''actually''' Classical, how many are correctly predicted to be Classical?<br />
* Describes the rate at which the classifier predicts the true genre of songs among the correct instances of that genre<br />
<br />
=== F1-Score: ===<br />
An accuracy metric that combines the classifier’s precision and recall scores by taking the harmonic mean between the two metrics:<br />
<br />
[[File:F1441.png|frame|100px|none|F1-Score]]<br />
<br />
=== Receiver operating characteristics (ROC): ===<br />
* A graphical metric that is used to assess a classification model at different classification thresholds <br />
* In the case of a classification threshold of 0.5, this means that if <math>P(Y = k | X = x) > 0.5</math> then we classify this instance as class k<br />
* Plots the true positive rate versus false positive rate as the classification threshold is varied<br />
<br />
[[File:ROCGraph.jpg|thumb|400px|none|ROC Graph. Comparison of True Positive Rate and False Positive Rate]]<br />
<br />
=== Area Under the Curve (AUC) ===<br />
AUC is the area under the ROC in doing so, the ROC provides an aggregate measure across all possible classification thresholds.<br />
<br />
In the context of the paper: When scoring all songs as <math>Prob(Classical | X=x)</math>, it is the probability that the model ranks a random Classical song at a higher probability than a random non-Classical song.<br />
<br />
[[File:AUCGraph.jpg|thumb|400px|none|Area under the ROC curve.]]<br />
<br />
== Results ==<br />
=== Accuracy Metrics ===<br />
The table below is the accuracy metrics with the classification threshold of 0.5.<br />
<br />
[[File:TruePositiveChart.jpg|thumb|none|True Positive / False Positive Chart]]<br />
On average, CRNN outperforms CNN in true positive and false positive cases. In addition, it is very apparent that false positives are much more frequent for songs in the Instrumental genre, perhaps indicating that more pre-processing needs to be done for songs in this genre or that it should be excluded from analysis completely given how most music has instrumental components.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:F1Chart441.jpg|thumb|400px|none|F1 Chart]]<br />
On average, CRNN outperforms CNN in F1-score. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[File:AUCChart.jpg|thumb|400px|none|AUC Chart]]<br />
On average, CRNN also outperforms CNN in AUC metric.<br />
<br />
<br />
CRNN models that consider the frequency features and time sequence patterns of songs have a better classification performance through metrics such as F1 score and AUC when comparing to CNN classifier.<br />
<br />
=== Evaluation of Music Recommendation System: ===<br />
<br />
* A listening experiment was performed with 30 participants to access user responses to given music recommendations.<br />
* Participants choose 5 pieces of music they enjoyed and the recommender system generated 5 new recommendations. The participants then evaluated the music recommendation by recording whether the song was liked or disliked.<br />
* The recommendation system takes two approaches to the recommendation:<br />
** Method one uses only the value of cosine similarity.<br />
** Method two uses the value of cosine similarity and information on music genre.<br />
*Perform test of significance of differences in average user likes between the two methods using a t-statistic:<br />
[[File:H0441.png|frame|100px|none|Hypothesis test between method 1 and method 2]]<br />
<br />
Comparing the two methods, <math> H_0: u_1 - u_2 = 0</math>, we have <math> t_{stat} = -4.743 < -2.037 </math>, which demonstrates that the increase in average user likes with the addition of music genre information is statistically significant.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion: ==<br />
<br />
Here are two main conclusions obtained from this paper:<br />
<br />
- To increase the predictive capabilities of the music recommendation system, the music genre should be a key feature to analyze.<br />
<br />
- To extract the song genre from a song’s audio signals and get overall better performance, CRNN’s are superior to CNN’s as they consider frequency in features and time sequence patterns of audio signals. <br />
<br />
According to analyses in the paper, the authors also suggested adding other music features like tempo gram for capturing local tempo to improve the accuracy of the recommender system.<br />
<br />
== Critiques/ Insights: ==<br />
# The authors fail to give reference to the performance of current recommendation algorithms used in the industry; my critique would be for the authors to bench-mark their novel approach with other recommendation algorithms such as collaborative filtering to see if there is a lift in predictive capabilities.<br />
# The listening experiment used to evaluate the recommendation system only includes songs that are outputted by the model. Users may be biased if they believe all songs have come from a recommendation system. To remove bias, we suggest having 15 songs where 5 songs are recommended and 10 songs are set. With this in the user’s mind, it may remove some bias in response and give more accurate predictive capabilities. <br />
# They could go into more details about how CRNN makes it perform better than CNN, in terms of attributes of each network.<br />
# The methodology introduced in this paper is probably also suitable for movie recommendations. As music is presented as spectrograms (images) in a time sequence, and it is very similar to a movie. <br />
# The way of evaluation is a very interesting approach. Since it's usually not easy to evaluate the testing result when it's subjective. By listing all these evaluations' performance, the result would be more comprehensive. A practice that might reduce bias is by coming back to the participants after a couple of days and asking whether they liked the music that was recommended. Often times music "grows" on people and their opinion of a new song may change after some time has passed. <br />
# The paper lacks the comparison between the proposed algorithm and the music recommendation algorithms being used now. It will be clearer to show the superiority of this algorithm.<br />
# The GAN neural network has been proposed to enhance the performance of the neural network, so an improved result may appear after considering using GAN.<br />
# The limitation of CNN and CRNN could be that they are only able to process the spectrograms with single labels rather than multiple labels. This is far from enough for the music recommender systems in today's music industry since the edges between various genres are blurred.<br />
# according to the author, the recommender system is done by calculating the cosine similarity of extraction features from one music to another music. Is possible to represent it by Euclidean distance or p-norm distances?<br />
# In real-life application, most of the music software will have the ability to recommend music to the listener and ask do they like the music that was recommended. It would be a nice application by involving some new information from the listener.<br />
# This paper is very similar to another [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-46131-1_29 paper], written by Bruce Fewerda and Markus Schedl. Both papers are suggesting methods of building music recommendation systems. However, this paper recommends music based on genre, but the paper written by Fewerda and Schedl suggests a personality-based user modeling for music recommender systems.<br />
# Actual music listeners do not listen to one genre of music, and in fact listening to the same track or the same genre would be somewhat unusual. Could this method be used to make recommendations not on genre, but based on other catogories? (Such as the theme of the lyrics, the pitch of the singer, or the date published). Would this model be able to diffentiate between tracks of varying "lyric vocabulation difficulty"? Or would NLP algorithms be needed to consider lyrics?<br />
# This model can be applied to many other fields such as recommending the news in the news app, recommending things to buy in the amazon, recommending videos to watch in YOUTUBE and so on based on the user information.<br />
# Looks like for the most genres, CRNN outperforms CNN, but CNN did do better on a few genres (like Jazz), so it might be better to mix them together or might use CNN for some genres and CRNN for the rest.<br />
# Cosine similarity is used to find songs with similar patterns as the input ones from users. That is, feature variables are extracted from the trained neural network model before the classification layer, and used as the basis to find similar songs. One potential problem of this approach is that if the neural network classifies an input song incorrectly, the extracted feature vector will not be a good representation of the input song. Thus, a song that is in fact really similar to the input song may have a small cosine similarity value, i.e. not be recommended. In conclusion, if the first classification is wrong, future inferences based on that is going to make it deviate further from the true answer. A possible future improvement will be how to offset this inference error.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Evaluating_Machine_Accuracy_on_ImageNet&diff=48479Evaluating Machine Accuracy on ImageNet2020-11-30T18:44:20Z<p>J632liu: /* Human Labeler Training */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Siyuan Xia, Jiaxiang Liu, Jiabao Dong, Yipeng Du<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
ImageNet is the most influential data set in machine learning with images and corresponding labels over 1000 classes. This paper intends to explore the causes for performance differences between human experts and machine learning models, more specifically, CNN, on ImageNet. <br />
<br />
Firstly, some images may fall into multiple classes. As a result, it is possible to underestimate the performance if we map each image to strictly one label, which is what is being done in the top-1 metric. Therefore, we adopt both top-1 and top-5 metrics where the performances of models, unlike human labelers, are linearly correlated in both cases.<br />
<br />
Secondly, in contrast to the uniform performance of models in classes, humans tend to achieve better performances on inanimate objects. Human labelers achieve similar overall accuracies as the models, which indicates spaces of improvements on specific classes for machines.<br />
<br />
Lastly, the setup of drawing training and test sets from the same distribution may favour models over human labelers. That is, the accuracy of multi-class prediction from models drops when the testing set is drawn from a different distribution than the training set, ImageNetV2. But this shift in distribution does not cause a problem for human labelers.<br />
<br />
== Experiment Setup ==<br />
=== Overview ===<br />
There are four main phases to the experiment, which are (i) initial multilabel annotation, (ii) human labeler training, (iii) human labeler evaluation, and (iv) final annotation overview. The five authors of the paper are the participants in the experiments. <br />
<br />
A brief overview of the four phases is as follows:<br />
[[File:Experiment Set Up.png |800px| center]]<br />
<br />
=== Initial multi-label annotation ===<br />
Three labelers A, B, and C provided multi-label annotations for a subset from the ImageNet validation set, and all images from the ImageNetV2 test sets. These experiences give A, B, and C extensive experience with the ImageNet dataset. <br />
<br />
=== Human Labeler Training === <br />
All five labelers trained on labeling a subset of the remaining ImageNet images.<br />
<br />
=== Human Labeler Evaluation ===<br />
Class-balanced random samples are generated from both the ImageNet validation set and ImageNetV2. Five participants labeled these images over 28 days.<br />
<br />
=== Final annotation Review ===<br />
All labelers reviewed the additional annotations generated in the human labeler evaluation phase.<br />
<br />
== Multi-label annotations==<br />
[[File:Categories Multilabel.png|800px|center]]<br />
<div align="center">Figure 3</div><br />
<br />
===Top-1 accuracy===<br />
With Top-1 accuracy being the standard accuracy measure used in classification studies, it measures the proportions of examples for which the predicted label matches the single target label. As many images often contain more than one object for classification, for example, Figure 3a contains a desk, laptop, keyboard, space bar, and more. With Figure 3b showing a centered prominent figure yet labeled otherwise (people vs picket fence), it can be seen how a single target label is inaccurate for such a task since identifying the main objects in the image does not suffice due to its overly stringent and punishes predictions that are the main image yet does not match its label.<br />
===Top-5 accuracy===<br />
With Top-5 considers a classification correct if the object label is in the top 5 predicted labels, it partially resolves the problem with Top-1 labeling yet it is still not ideal since it can trivialize class distinctions. For instance, within the dataset, five turtle classes are given which is difficult to distinguish under such classification evaluations.<br />
===Multi-label accuracy===<br />
The paper then proposes that for every image, the image shall have a set of target labels and a prediction; if such prediction matches one of the labels, it will be considered as correct labeling. Due to the above-discussed limitations of Top-1 and Top-5 metrics, the paper claims it is necessary for rigorous accuracy evaluation on the dataset. <br />
<br />
===Types of Multi-label annotations===<br />
====Multiple objects or organisms====<br />
For the images containing more than one object or organism that corresponds to ImageNet, the paper proposed to add an additional target label for each entity in the image. With the discussed image in Figure 3b, the class groom, bow tie, suit, gown, and hoopskirt are all present in the foreground which is then subsequently added to the set of labels.<br />
====Synonym or subset relations====<br />
For similar classes, the paper considers them as under the same bigger class, that is, for two similarly labeled images, classification is considered correct if the produced label matches either one of the labels. For instance, warthog, African elephant, and Indian element all have prominent tusks, they will be considered subclasses of the tusker, Figure 3c shows a modification of labels to contain tusker as a correct label.<br />
====Unclear Image====<br />
In certain cases such as Figure 3d, there is a distinctive difficulty to determine whether a label was correct due to ambiguities in the class hierarchy.<br />
===Collecting multi-label annotations===<br />
Participants reviewed all predictions made by the models on the dataset ImageNet and ImageNet-V2, the participants then categorized every unique prediction made by the models on the dataset into correct and incorrect labels in order to allow all images to have multiple correct labels to satisfy the above-listed method.<br />
===The multi-label accuracy metric===<br />
One prediction is only correct if and only if it was marked correct by the expert reviewers during the annotation stage. As discussed in the experiment setup section, after human labelers have completed labeling, a second annotation stage is conducted. In Figure 4, a comparison of Top-1, Top-5, and multi-label accuracies showed higher Top-1 and Top-5 accuracy corresponds with higher multi-label accuracy as expected. With multi-label accuracies measures consistently higher than Top-1 yet lower than Top-5 which shows a high correlation between the three metrics, the paper concludes that multi-label metrics measures a semantically more meaningful notion of accuracy compared to its counterparts.<br />
<br />
== Human Accuracy Measurement Process ==<br />
=== Bias Control ===<br />
Since three participants participated in the initial round of annotation, they did not look at the data for six months, and two additional annotators are introduced in the final evaluation phase to ensure fairness of the experiment. <br />
<br />
=== Human Labeler Training ===<br />
The three main difficulties encountered during human labeler training are fine-grained distinctions, class unawareness, and insufficient training images. Thus, three training regimens are provided to address the problems listed above, respectively. First, labelers will be assigned extra training tasks with immediate feedbacks on similar classes. Second, labelers will be provided access to search for specific classes during labeling. Finally, the training set will contain a reasonable amount of images for each class.<br />
<br />
=== Labeling Guide ===<br />
A labeling guide is constructed to distill class analysis learned during training into discriminative traits that could be used as a reference during the final labeling evaluation.<br />
<br />
=== Final Evaluation and Review ===<br />
Two samples, each containing 1000 images, are sampled from ImageNet and ImageNetV2, respectively, They are sampled in a class-balanced manner and shuffled together. Over 28 days, all five participants labeled all images. They spent a median of 26 seconds per image. After labeling is completed, an additional multi-label annotation session was conducted, in which human predictions for all images are manually reviewed. Comparing to the initial round of labeling, 37% of the labels changes due to participants' greater familiarity with the classes.<br />
<br />
== Main Results ==<br />
[[File:Evaluating Machine Accuracy on ImageNet Figure 1.png | center]]<br />
<br />
<div align="center">Figure 1</div><br />
<br />
===Comparison of Human and Machine Accuracies on Image Net===<br />
From Figure 1, we can see that the difference in accuracies between the datasets is within 1% for all human participants. As hypothesized, human testers indeed performed better than the automated models on both datasets. It's worth noticing that labelers D and E, who did not participate in the initial annotation period, actually performed better than the best automated model.<br />
===Comparison of Human and Machine Accuracies on Image Net===<br />
Based on the results shown in Figure 1, we can see that the confidence interval of the best 4 human participants and 4 best model overlap; however, with a p-value of 0.037 using the McNemar's paired test, it rejects the hypothesis that the FixResNeXt model and Human E labeler have the same accuracy with respect to the ImageNet validation dataset. Figure 1 also shows that the confidence intervals of the labeling accuracies for human labelers C, D, E do not overlap with the confidence interval of the best model with respect to ImageNet-V2 and with the McNemar's test yielding a p-value of $2\times 10^{-4}$, it is clear that the hypothesis human and machined models have same robustness to model distribution shifts ought to be rejected.<br />
<br />
== Other Observations ==<br />
<br />
[[File: Results_Summary_Table.png| 800px|center]]<br />
<br />
=== Difficult Images ===<br />
<br />
The experiment also shed some light on images that are difficult to label. 10 images were misclassified by all of the human labelers. Among those 10 images, there was 1 image of a monkey and 9 of dogs. In addition, 27 images, with 19 in object classes and 8 in organism classes, were misclassified by all 72 machine learning models in this experiment. Only 2 images were labeled wrong by all human labelers and models. Both images contained dogs. Researchers also noted that difficult images for models are mostly images of objects and exclusively images of animals for human labelers.<br />
<br />
=== Accuracies without dogs ===<br />
<br />
As previously discussed in the paper, machine learning models tend to outperform human labelers when classifying the 118 dog classes. To better understand to what extent does models outperform human labelers, researchers computed the accuracies again by excluding all the dog classes. Results showed a 0.6% increase in accuracy on the ImageNet images using the best model and a 1.1% increase on the ImageNet V2 images. In comparison, the mean increases in accuracy for human labelers are 1.9% and 1.8% on the ImageNet and ImageNet V2 images respectively. Researchers also conducted a simulation to demonstrate that the increase in human labeling accuracy on non-dog images is significant. This simulation was done by bootstrapping to estimate the changes in accuracy when only using data for the non-dog classes, and simulation results show smaller increases than in the experiment. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, it's more difficult for human labelers to classify images with dogs than it is for machine learning models.<br />
<br />
=== Accuracies on objects ===<br />
Researchers also computed machine and human labelers' accuracies on a subset of data with only objects, as opposed to organisms, to better illustrate the differences in performance. This test involved 590 object classes. As shown in the table above, there is a 3.3% and 3.4% increase in mean accuracies for human labelers on the ImageNet and ImageNet V2 images. In contrast, there is a 0.5% decrease in accuracy for the best model on both ImageNet and ImageNet V2. This indicates that human labelers are much better at classifying objects than these models are.<br />
<br />
=== Accuracies on fast images ===<br />
Unlike the CNN models, human labelers spent different amounts of time on different images, spanning from several seconds to 40 minutes. To further analyze the images that take human labelers less time to classify, researchers took a subset of images with median labeling time spent by human labelers of at most 60 seconds. These images were referred to as "fast images". There are 756 and 714 fast images from ImageNet and ImageNet V2 respectively, out of the total 2000 images used for evaluation. Accuracies of models and humans on the fast images increased significantly, especially for humans. <br />
<br />
This result suggests that human labelers know when an image is difficult to label and would spend more time on it. It also shows that the models are more likely to correctly label images that human labelers can label relatively quickly.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
=== Human accuracy on ImageNet ===<br />
<br />
Russakovsky et al. (2015) studied two trained human labelers' accuracies on 1500 and 258 images in the context of the ImageNet challenge. The top-5 accuracy of the labeler who labeled 1500 images was the well-known human baseline on ImageNet. <br />
<br />
As introduced before, the researchers went beyond by using multi-label accuracy, using more labelers, and focusing on robustness to small distribution shifts. Although the researchers had some different findings, some results are also consistent with results from (Russakovsky et al., 2015). An example is that both experiments indicated that it takes human labelers around one minute to label an image. The time distribution also has a long tail, due to the difficult images as mentioned before.<br />
<br />
=== Human performance in computer vision broadly ===<br />
There are many examples of recent studies about humans in the area of computer vision, such as investigating human robustness to synthetic distribution change (Geirhos et al., 2017) and studying what characteristics do humans use to recognize objects (Geirhos et al., 2018). Other examples include the adversarial examples constructed to fool both machines and time-limited humans (Elsayed et al., 2018) and illustrating foreground/background objects' effects on human and machine performance (Zhu et al., 2016). <br />
<br />
=== Multi-label annotations ===<br />
Stock & Cissé (2017) also studied ImageNet's multi-label nature, which aligns with the researchers' study in this paper. According to Stock & Cissé (2017), the top-1 accuracy measure could underestimate multi-label by up to 13.2%.<br />
<br />
=== ImageNet inconsistencies and label error ===<br />
Researches have found and recorded some incorrectly labeled images from ImageNet and ImageNet V2 during this study. Earlier studies (Van Horn et al., 2015) also shown that at least 4% of the birds in ImageNet are misclassified. This work also noted that the inconsistent taxonomic structure in birds' classes could lead to weak class boundaries. Researchers also noted that the majority of the fine-grained organism classes also had similar taxonomic issues.<br />
<br />
=== Distribution shift ===<br />
There has been an increasing amount of studies in this area. One focus of the studies is distributionally robust optimization (DRO), which finds the model that has the smallest worst-case expected error over a set of probability distributions. Another focus is on finding the model with the lowest error rates on adversarial examples. Work in both areas has been productive, but none was shown to resolve the drop in accuracies between ImageNet and ImageNet V2.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion and Future Work ==<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
Researchers noted that in order to achieve truly reliable machine learning, people need a deeper understanding of what input changes should models be robust to. This study has provided valuable insights into the desired robustness properties by comparing model performance to human performance. The results have shown that current performance benchmarks are not addressing the robustness to small and natural distribution shifts, which are easily handled by humans. <br />
<br />
=== Future work ===<br />
Other than improving the robustness of models, researchers should consider investigating if less-trained human labelers can achieve a similar level of robustness to distributional shifts. In addition, researchers can study the robustness to temporal changes, which is another form of natural distribution shift (Gu et al., 2019; Shankar et al., 2019).<br />
<br />
== Critiques ==<br />
<br />
# Table 1 simply showed a difference in ImageNet multi-label accuracy yet does not give an explicit reason as to why such a difference is present. Although the paper suggested the distribution shift has caused the difference, it does not give other factors to concretely explain why the distribution shift was the cause.<br />
# With the recommendation to future machine evaluations, the paper proposed to "Report performances on dogs, other animals, and inanimate objects separately.". Despite its intentions, it is narrowly specific and requires further generalization for it to be convincing. <br />
# With choosing human subjects as samplers, no further information was given as to how they are chosen nor there are any background information was given. As it is a classification problem involving many classes as specific to species, a biology student would give far more accurate results than a computer science student or a math student. <br />
# As explaining the importance of multi-label metrics using comparison to Top-5 metric, the turtle example falls within the overall similarity (simony) classification of the multi-label evaluation metric, as such, if the Top-5 evaluation suggests any one of the turtle species were selected, the algorithm is considered to produce a correct prediction which is the intention. The example does not convey the necessity of changing to the proposed metric over the Top-5 metric. <br />
# With the definition in the paper regarding multi-label metrics, it is hard to see why expanding the label set is different from a traditional Top-5 metric or rather necessary, ergo does not yield the claim which the proposed metric is necessary for rigorous accuracy evaluation on ImageNet.<br />
# When discussing the main results, the paper discusses the hypothesis on distribution shift having no effects on human and machine model accuracies; the presentation is poor at best with no clear centric to what they are trying to convey to how (in detail) they resulted in such claims.<br />
# In the experiment setup of the presentation, there are a lot of key terms without detailed description. For example, Human labeler training using a subset of the remaining 30,000 unannotated images in the ImageNet validation set, labelers A, B, C, D, and E underwent extensive training to understand the intricacies of fine-grained class distinctions in the ImageNet class hierarchy. Authors should clarify each key term in the presentation otherwise readers are hard to follow.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=User:Gtompkin&diff=47813User:Gtompkin2020-11-29T21:11:51Z<p>J632liu: /* Critiques */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Grace Tompkins, Tatiana Krikella, Swaleh Hussain<br />
<br />
== Introduction ==<br />
<br />
One of the fundamental challenges in machine learning and data science is dealing with missing and incomplete data. This paper proposes a theoretically justified methodology for using incomplete data in neural networks, eliminating the need for direct completion of data by imputation or other commonly used methods in the existing literature. The authors propose identifying missing data points with a parametric density and then training it together with the rest of the network's parameters. The neuron's response at the first hidden layer is generalized by taking its expected value to process this probabilistic representation. This process is essentially calculating the average activation of the neuron over imputations drawn from the missing data's density. The proposed approach is advantageous as it has the ability to train neural networks using incomplete observations from datasets, which are ubiquitous in practice. This approach also requires minimal adjustments and modifications to existing architectures. Theoretical results of this study show that this process does not lead to a loss of information, while experimental results showed the practical uses of this methodology on several different types of networks.<br />
<br />
== Related Work ==<br />
<br />
Currently, dealing with incomplete inputs in machine learning requires filling absent attributes based on complete, observed data. Two commonly used methods are mean imputation and <math>k</math>-nearest neighbours (k-NN) imputation. In the former (mean imputation), the missing value is replaced by the mean of all available values of that feature in the dataset. In the latter (k-NN imputation), the missing value is also replaced by the mean, however it is now computed using only the k "closest" samples in the dataset. If the dataset is numerical, Euclidean distance could be used as a measure of "closeness", for example. Other methods for dealing with missing data involve training separate neural networks and extreme learning machines. Probabilistic models of incomplete data can also be built depending on the mechanism missingness (i.e. whether the data is Missing At Random (MAR), Missing Completely At Random (MCAR), or Missing Not At Random (MNAR)), which can be fed into a particular learning model. Further, the decision function can also be trained using available/visible inputs alone. Previous work using neural networks for missing data includes a paper by Bengio and Gringras [1] where the authors used recurrent neural networks with feedback into the input units to fill absent attributes solely to minimize the learning criterion. Goodfellow et. al. [2] also used neural networks by introducing a multi-prediction deep Boltzmann machine that could perform classification on data with missingness in the inputs.<br />
<br />
== Layer for Processing Missing Data ==<br />
<br />
In this approach, the adaptation of a given neural network to incomplete data relies on two steps: the estimation of the missing data and the generalization of the neuron's activation. <br />
<br />
Let <math>(x,J)</math> represent a missing data point, where <math>x \in \mathbb{R}^D </math>, and <math>J \subset \{1,...,D\} </math> is a set of attributes with missing data. <math>(x,J)</math> therefore represents an "incomplete" data point for which <math>|J|</math>-many entries are unknown - examples of this could be a list of daily temperature readings over a week where temperature was not recorded on the third day (<math>x\in \mathbb{R}^7, J= \{3\}</math>), an audio transcript that goes silent for certain timespans, or images that are partially masked out (as discussed in the examples).<br />
<br />
For each missing point <math>(x,J)</math>, define an affine subspace consisting of all points which coincide with <math>x</math> on known coordinates <math>J'=\{1,…,N\}/J</math>: <br />
<br />
<center><math>S=Aff[x,J]=span(e_J) </math></center> <br />
where <math>e_J=[e_j]_{j\in J}</math> and <math>e_j</math> is the <math> j^{th}</math> canonical vector in <math>\mathbb{R}^D </math>.<br />
<br />
Assume that the missing data points come from the D-dimensional probability distribution, <math>F</math>. In their approach, the authors assume that the data points follow a mixture of Gaussians (GMM) with diagonal covariance matrices. By choosing diagonal covariance matrices, the number of model parameters is reduced. To model the missing points <math>(x,J)</math>, the density <math>F</math> is restricted to the affine subspace <math>S</math>. Thus, possible values of <math>(x,J)</math> are modelled using the conditional density <math>F_S: S \to \mathbb{R} </math>, <br />
<br />
<center><math>F_S(x) = \begin{cases}<br />
\frac{1}{\int_{S} F(s) \,ds}F(x) & \text{if $x \in S$,} \\<br />
0 & \text{otherwise.}<br />
\end{cases} </math></center><br />
<br />
To process the missing data by a neural network, the authors propose that only the first hidden layer needs modification. Specifically, they generalize the activation functions of all the neurons in the first hidden layer of the network to process the probability density functions representing the missing data points. For the conditional density function <math>F_S</math>, the authors define the generalized activation of a neuron <math>n: \mathbb{R}^D \to \mathbb{R}</math> on <math>F_S </math> as: <br />
<br />
<center><math>n(F_S)=E[n(x)|x \sim F_S]=\int n(x)F_S(x) \,dx</math>,</center> <br />
provided that the expectation exists. <br />
<br />
The following two theorems describe how to apply the above generalizations to both the ReLU and the RBF neurons, respectively. <br />
<br />
'''Theorem 3.1''' Let <math>F = \sum_i{p_iN(m_i, \Sigma_i)}</math> be the mixture of (possibly degenerate) Gaussians. Given weights <math>w=(w_1, ..., w_D) \in \mathbb{R}^D,</math><math> b \in \mathbb{R} </math>, we have<br />
<br />
<center><math>\text{ReLU}_{w,b}(F)=\sum_i{p_iNR\big(\frac{w^{\top}m_i+b}{\sqrt{w^{\top}\Sigma_iw}}}\big)</math></center> <br />
<br />
where <math>NR(x)=\text{ReLU}[N(x,1)]</math> and <math>\text{ReLU}_{w,b}(x)=\text{max}(w^{\top}+b, 0)</math>, <math>w \in \mathbb{R}^D </math> and <math> b \in \mathbb{R}</math> is the bias.<br />
<br />
'''Theorem 3.2''' Let <math>F = \sum_i{p_iN(m_i, \Sigma_i)}</math> be the mixture of (possibly degenerate) Gaussians and let the RBF unit be parametrized by <math>N(c, \Gamma) </math>. We have: <br />
<br />
<center><math>\text{RBF}_{c, \Gamma}(F) = \sum_{i=1}^k{p_iN(m_i-c, \Gamma+\Sigma_i)}(0)</math>.</center> <br />
<br />
In the case where the data set contains no missing values, the generalized neurons reduce to classical ones, since the distribution <math>F</math> is only used to estimate possible values at missing attributes. However, if one wishes to use an incomplete data set in the testing stage, then an incomplete data set must be used to train the model.<br />
<br />
<math> </math><br />
<br />
== Theoretical Analysis ==<br />
<br />
The main theoretical results, which are summarized below, show that using generalized neuron's activation at the first layer does not lead to the loss of information. <br />
<br />
Let the generalized response of a neuron <math>n: \mathbb{R}^D \rightarrow \mathbb{R}</math> evaluated on a probability measure <math>\mu</math> which is given by <br />
<center><math>n(\mu) := \int n(x)d\mu(x)</math></center><br />
<br />
'''Theorem 4.1.''' Let <math>\mu</math>, <math>v</math> be probabilistic measures satisfying <math>\int ||x|| d \mu(x) < \infty</math>. If <br />
<center><math>ReLU_{w,b}(\mu) = ReLU_{w,b}(\nu) \text{ for } w \in \mathbb{R}^D, b \in \mathbb{R}</math></center> then <math>\nu = \mu</math>.<br />
<br />
Theorem 4.1 shows that a neural network with generalized ReLU units is able to identify any two probability measures. The proof presented by the authors uses the Universal Approximation Property (UAP), and is summarized as follows. <br />
<br />
''Sketch of Proof'' Let <math>w \in \mathbb{R}^D</math> be fixed and define the set <center><math>F_w = \{p: \mathbb{R} \rightarrow \mathbb{R}: \int p(w^Tx)d\mu(x) = \int p(w^Tx)d\nu(x)\}.</math></center> The first step of the proof involves showing that <math>F_w</math> contains all continuous and bounded functions. The authors show this by showing that a piecewise continuous function that is affine linear on specific intervals, <math>Q</math>, is in the set <math>F_w</math>. This involves re-writing <math>Q</math> as a sum of tent-like piecewise linear functions, <math>T</math> and showing that <math>T \in F_w</math> (since it is sufficient to only show <math>T \in F_w</math>). <br />
<br />
Next, the authors show that an arbitrary bounded continuous function <math>G</math> is in <math>F_w</math> by the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem. <br />
<br />
Then, as <math>cos(\cdot), sin(\cdot) \in F_w</math>, the function <center><math>exp(ir) = cos(r) + i sin(r) \in F_w</math></center> and we have the equality <center><math>\int exp(iw^Tx)d\mu(x) = \int exp(iw^Tx)d\nu(x).</math></center> Since <math>w</math> was arbitrarily chosen, we can conclude that <math>\mu = \nu</math> as the characteristic functions of the two measures coincide. <br />
<br />
A result analogous to Theorem 4.1 for RBF can also be obtained.<br />
<br />
'''Theorem 2.1''' Let <math>\mu, \nu</math> be probabilistic measures. If<br />
$$ RBF_{m,\alpha}(\mu) = RBF_{m,\alpha}(\nu) \text{ for every } m \in \mathbb{R}^D, \alpha > 0,$$<br />
then <math>\nu = \mu</math>.<br />
<br />
More general results can be obtained making stronger assumptions on the probability measures. For example, if a given family of neurons satisfies UAP, then their generalization can identify any probability measure with compact support.<br />
<br />
'''Theorem 2.2''' Let <math>\mu, \nu</math> be probabilistic measures with compact support. Let <math>\mathcal{N}</math> be a family of functions having UAP. If<br />
$$n(\mu) = n(\nu) \text{ for every } n \in \mathcal{N},$$<br />
then <math>\nu = \mu</math>.<br />
<br />
A detailed proof Theorems 2.1 and 2.2 can be found in section 2 of the Supplementary Materials, which can be downloaded [https://proceedings.neurips.cc/paper/2018/hash/411ae1bf081d1674ca6091f8c59a266f-Abstract.html here].<br />
<br />
== Experimental Results ==<br />
The model was applied to three types of algorithms: an Autoencoder (AE), a multilayer perceptron, and a radial basis function network.<br />
<br />
'''Autoencoder'''<br />
<br />
Corrupted images were restored as a part of this experiment. Grayscale handwritten digits were obtained from the MNIST database. A 13 by 13 (169 pixels) square was removed from each 28 by 28 (784 pixels) image. The location of the square was uniformly sampled for each image. The autoencoder used included 5 hidden layers. The first layer used ReLU activation functions while the subsequent layers utilized sigmoids. The loss function was computed using pixels from outside the mask. <br />
<br />
Popular imputation techniques were compared against the conducted experiment:<br />
<br />
''k-nn:'' Replaced missing features with the mean of respective features calculated using K nearest training samples. Here, K=5. <br />
<br />
''mean:'' Replaced missing features with the mean of respective features calculated using all incomplete training samples.<br />
<br />
''dropout:'' Dropped input neutrons with missing values. <br />
<br />
Moreover, a context encoder (CE) was trained by replacing missing features with their means. Unlike mean imputation, the complete data was used in the training phase. The method under study performed better than the imputation methods inside and outside the mask. Additionally, the method under study outperformed CE based on the whole area and area outside the mask. <br />
<br />
The mean square error of reconstruction is used to test each method. The errors calculated over the whole area, inside and outside the mask are shown in Table 1, which indicates the method introduced in this paper is the most competitive.<br />
<br />
[[File:Group3_Table1.png |center]]<br />
<div align="center">Table 1: Mean square error of reconstruction on MNIST incomplete images scaled to [0, 1]</div><br />
<br />
'''Multilayer Perceptron'''<br />
<br />
A multilayer perceptron with 3 ReLU hidden layers was applied to a multi-class classification problem on the Epileptic Seizure Recognition (ESR) data set taken from [3]. Each 178-dimensional vector (out of 11500 samples) is the EEG recording of a given person for 1 second, categorized into one of 5 classes. To generate missing attributes, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90% of observations were randomly removed. The aforementioned imputation methods were used in addition to Multiple Imputation by Chained Equation (mice) and a mixture of Gaussians (gmm). The former utilizes the conditional distribution of data by Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques to draw imputations. The latter replaces missing features with values sampled from GMM estimated from incomplete data using the EM algorithm. <br />
<br />
Double 5-fold cross-validation was used to report classification results. The classical accuracy measure is usually being used for accessing the results.The model under study outperformed classical imputation methods, which give reasonable results only for a low number of missing values. The method under study performs nearly as well as CE, even though CE had access to complete training data. <br />
<br />
'''Radial Basis Function Network'''<br />
<br />
RBFN can be considered as a minimal architecture implementing our model, which contains only one hidden layer. A cross-entropy function was applied to a softmax in the output layer. Two-class data sets retrieved from the UCI repository [4] with internally missing attributes were used. Since the classification is binary, two additional SVM kernel models which work directly with incomplete data without performing any imputations were included in the experiment:<br />
<br />
''geom:'' The objective function is based on the geometric interpretation of the margin and aims to maximize the margin of each sample in its own subspace [5].<br />
<br />
''karma:'' This algorithm iteratively tunes kernel classifier under low-rank assumptions [6].<br />
<br />
The above SVM methods were combined with RBF kernel function. The number of RBF units was selected in the inner cross-validation from the range {25, 50, 75, 100}. Initial centers of RBFNs were randomly selected from training data while variances were samples from <math>N(0,1)</math> distribution. For SVM methods, the margin parameter <math>C</math> and kernel radius <math>\gamma</math> were selected from <math>\{2^k :k=−5,−3,...,9\}</math> for both parameters. For karma, additional parameter <math>\gamma_{karma}</math> was selected from the set <math>\{1, 2\}</math>.<br />
<br />
The model under study outperformed imputation techniques in almost all cases. It partially confirms that the use of raw incomplete data in neural networks is a usually better approach than filling missing attributes before the learning process. Moreover, it obtained more accurate results than modified kernel methods, which directly work on incomplete data. The performance of the model was once again comparable to, and in some cases better than CE, which had access to the complete data.<br />
<br />
== Conclusion ==<br />
<br />
The results with these experiments along with the theoretical results conclude that this novel approach for dealing with missing data through a modification of a neural network is beneficial and outperforms many existing methods. This approach, which utilizes representing missing data with a probability density function, allows a neural network to determine a more generalized and accurate response of the neuron.<br />
<br />
== Critiques ==<br />
<br />
- A simulation study where the mechanism of missingness is known will be interesting to examine. Doing this will allow us to see when the proposed method is better than existing methods, and under what conditions.<br />
<br />
- This method of imputing incomplete data has many limitations: in most cases when we have a missing data point we are facing a relatively small amount of data that does not require training of a neural network. For a large dataset, missing records does not seem to be very crucial because obtaining data will be relatively easier, and using an empirical way of imputing data such as a majority vote will be sufficient.<br />
<br />
- An interesting application of this problem is in NLP. In NLP, especially Question Answering, there is a problem where a query is given and an answer must be retrieved, but the knowledge base is incomplete. There is therefore a requirement for the model to be able to infer information from the existing knowledge base in order to answer the question. Although this problem is a little more contrived than the one mentioned here, it is nevertheless similar in nature because it requires the ability to probabilistically determine some value which can then be used as a response.<br />
<br />
- The experiments in this paper evaluate this method against low amounts of missing data. It would be interesting to see the properties of this imputation when a majority of the data is missing, and see if this method can outperform dropout training in this setting (dropout is known to be surprisingly robust even at high drop levels).<br />
<br />
- This problem can possibly be applied to face recognition where given a blurry image of a person's face, the neural network can make the image clearer such that the face of the person would be visible for humans to see and also possible for the software to identify who the person is.<br />
<br />
- This novel approach can also be applied to restoring damaged handwritten historical documents. By feeding in a damaged document with portions of unreadable texts, the neural network can add missing information utilizing a trained context encoder<br />
<br />
- It will be interesting to see how this method performs with audio data, i.e. say if there are parts of an audio file that are missing, whether the neural network will be able to learn the underlying distribution and impute the missing sections of speech.<br />
<br />
- In general, data are usually missing in a specific part of the content. For example, old books usually have first couple page or last couple pages that are missing. It would be interesting to see that how the distribution of "missing data" will be applied in those cases.<br />
<br />
- In this paper, the researchers were able to outperform existing imputation methods using neural networks. It would be really nice to see how does the usage of neural networks impact the need for amount of data, and how much more training is required in comparison to the other algorithms provided in this paper. <br />
<br />
- It might be an interesting approach to investigate how the size of missing data may influence the training. For example, in the MNIST AutoEncoder, some algorithms involve masks to generate more general images and avoid overfitting. The approach could compare the result by changing the size of the "missing" part to illustrate to what degree can we ignore the missing data and view them as assistance.<br />
<br />
- It would be nice to see how the method under study outperforms both the Multilayer Perceptron and Radial Basis Function Network methods mentioned in the summary. Since these two methods are placed under the Experimental Results section, it is expected that they consist more justifications and supporting evidence (analytical results, tables, graphs, etc.) then what have been presented, so that it is more convincing for the readers.<br />
<br />
- Both KNN imputation and mean imputation are valid techniques to solve the problem, one possible future study on this topic is to explore which one of the two methods above will perform better given the sparsity of the dataset. Another possible study is that if there are methods that can make better inferences on original input, an example is described in the paper (https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~ilyas/papers/WuMLSys2020.pdf), where imputation is performed based on learning structural properties of data distributions.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
[1] Yoshua Bengio and Francois Gingras. Recurrent neural networks for missing or asynchronous<br />
data. In Advances in neural information processing systems, pages 395–401, 1996.<br />
<br />
[2] Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, and Aaron Courville. Deep learning. MIT press, 2016.<br />
<br />
[3] Ralph G Andrzejak, Klaus Lehnertz, Florian Mormann, Christoph Rieke, Peter David, and Christian E Elger. Indications of nonlinear deterministic and finite-dimensional structures in time series of brain electrical activity: Dependence on recording region and brain state. Physical Review E, 64(6):061907, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4] Arthur Asuncion and David J. Newman. UCI Machine Learning Repository, 2007.<br />
<br />
[5] Gal Chechik, Geremy Heitz, Gal Elidan, Pieter Abbeel, and Daphne Koller. Max-margin classification of data with absent features. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 9:1–21, 2008.<br />
<br />
[6] Elad Hazan, Roi Livni, and Yishay Mansour. Classification with low rank and missing data. In Proceedings of The 32nd International Conference on Machine Learning, pages 257–266, 2015.</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Summary_for_survey_of_neural_networked-based_cancer_prediction_models_from_microarray_data&diff=47790Summary for survey of neural networked-based cancer prediction models from microarray data2020-11-29T20:24:50Z<p>J632liu: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Rao Fu, Siqi Li, Yuqin Fang, Zeping Zhou<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Microarray technology can help researchers quickly detect genetic information and is widely used to analyze genetic diseases. Researchers use this technology to compare normal and abnormal cancerous tissues to gain insights into the pathology of cancer. <br />
<br />
However, due to the high dimensionality of the gene expressions, accuracy and computation time of the model might be affected. The following two approaches are adopted to cope with this problem: the feature selection method and the feature creating method. The formal one, similar to the well-known principle component analysis method, aims to focus on key features and ignore minor noises. On the other hand, the latter one, similar to scale invariant feature transformations, aims to combine existing features or map them to a new low-dimensional space.<br />
<br />
Comparing to neural network models presented by others, this paper is specifically designed for predicting cancer using gene expression data. Thus, we will review the latest neural network-based cancer prediction models by presenting the methodology of preprocessing, filtering, prediction, and clustering gene expressions.<br />
<br />
== Background == <br />
<br />
'''Neural Network''' <br><br />
Neural networks are often used to solve non-linear complex problems. It is an operational model consisting of a large number of neurons connected to each other by different weights. In this network structure, each neuron is related to an activation function such as sigmoid or rectified linear activation functions. To train the network, the inputs are fed forward and the activation function value is calculated at every neuron. The difference between the output of the neural network and the actual value is what we call an error.<br />
The backpropagation mechanism is one of the most commonly used algorithms in solving neural network problems. By using this algorithm, we optimize the objective function by propagating back the generated error through the network to adjust the weights.<br />
In the next sections, we will use the above algorithm but with different network architectures and a different number of neurons to review the neural network-based cancer prediction models for learning the gene expression features.<br />
<br />
'''Cancer prediction models'''<br><br />
Cancer prediction models often contain more than 1 method to achieve high prediction accuracy with a more accurate prognosis and it also aims to reduce the cost of patients.<br />
<br />
High dimensionality and spatial structure are the two main factors that can affect the accuracy of the cancer prediction models. They add irrelevant noisy features to our selected models. We have 3 ways to determine the accuracy of a model.<br />
<br />
The first is called the ROC curve. ROC curves, receiver operating characteristic curves, are graphs that show the true positive rate against the false-positive rate [4]. It reflects the sensitivity of the response to the same signal stimulus under different criterias. To test its validity, we need to consider it with the confidence interval. Usually, a model is considered acceptable when its ROC is greater than 0.7. <br />
<br />
A different machine learning problem is predicting the survival time. The performance of a model that predicts survival time can be measured using two metrics. The problem of predicting survival time can be seen as a ranking problem, where survival times of different subjects are ranked against each other. CI (Concordance Index) is a measure of how good a model ranks survival times and explains the concordance probability of the predicted and observed survival. The closer its value to 0.7, the better the model is. We can express the ordering of survival times in an order graph <math display="inline">G = (V, E)</math> where the vertices <math display="inline">V</math> are the individual survival times, and the edges <math display="inline">E_{ij}</math> from individual <math display="inline">i</math> to <math display="inline">j</math> indicate that <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math>, where <math display="inline">T_i, T_j</math> are the survival times for individuals <math display="inline">i,j</math> respectively. Then we can write <math display="inline">CI = \frac{1}{|E|}\sum_{i,j}I(f(i) < f(j))</math> where <math display="inline">|E|</math> is the number of edges in the order graph (ie. the total number of comparable pairs), and <math display="inline">I(f(i) < f(j)) = 1</math> if the predictor <math display="inline">f</math> correctly ranks <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math> [3].<br />
<br />
Another metric is the Brier score, which measures the average difference between the observed and the estimated survival rate in a given period of time. It ranges from 0 to 1, and a lower score indicates higher accuracy. It is defined as <math display="inline">\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n(f_i - o_i)^2</math> where <math display="inline">f_i</math> is the predicted survival rate, and <math display="inline">o_i</math> is the observed survival rate [2].<br />
<br />
== Neural network-based cancer prediction models ==<br />
An extensive search relevant to neural network-based cancer prediction was performed using Google scholar and other electronic databases namely PubMed and Scopus with keywords such as “Neural Networks AND Cancer Prediction” and “gene expression clustering”, and only articles between 2013 and 2018 with available accessibility were considered. The chosen papers covered cancer classification, discovery, survivability prediction, and statistical analysis models. The following figure 1 shows a graph representing the number of citations including filtering, predictive, and clustering for chosen papers. <br />
<br />
[[File:f1.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Datasets and preprocessing''' <br><br />
Most studies investigating automatic cancer prediction and clustering used datasets such as the TCGA, UCI, NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus and Kentridge biomedical databases. There are a few techniques used in processing dataset including removing the genes that have zero expression across all samples, Normalization, filtering with p-value > <math>10^{-5}</math> to remove some unwanted technical variation and <math>\log_2</math> transformations. Statistical methods, neural networks, were applied to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions by selecting a subset of genes. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) can also be used as an initial preprocessing step to extract the dataset's features. The PCA method linearly transforms the dataset features into lower dimensional space without capturing the complex relationships between the features. However, simply removing the genes that were not measured by the other datasets could not overcome the class imbalance problem. In that case, one research used Synthetic Minority Class Over Sampling method to generate synthetic minority class samples, which may lead to a sparse matrix problem. Clustering was also applied in some studies for labeling data by grouping the samples into high-risk, low-risk groups, and so on. <br />
<br />
The following table presents the dataset used by considered reference, the applied normalization technique, the cancer type and the dimensionality of the datasets.<br />
<br />
[[File:Datasets and preprocessing.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Neural network architecture''' <br><br />
Most recent studies reveal that neural network methods are used for filtering, predicting and clustering in cancer prediction. <br />
<br />
*''filtering'': Filter the gene expressions to eliminate noise or reduce dimensionality. Then use the resulted features with statistical methods or machine learning classification and clustering tools as figure 2 indicates.<br />
<br />
*''predicting'': Extract features and improve the accuracy of prediction (classification).<br />
<br />
*''clustering'': Divide the gene expressions or samples based on similarity.<br />
<br />
[[File:filtering gane.png]]<br />
<br />
All the neurons in the neural network work together as feature detectors to learn the features from the input. In order to categorize a neural network as filtering, predicting, or clustering method, we looked at the overall role that network provided within the framework of cancer prediction. Filtering methods are trained to remove the input’s noise and to extract the most representative features that best describe the unlabeled gene expressions. Predicting methods are trained to extract the features that are significant to prediction, therefore its objective functions measure how accurately the network is able to predict the class of input. Clustering methods are trained to divide unlabeled samples into groups based on their similarities.<br />
<br />
'''Building neural networks-based approaches for gene expression prediction''' <br><br />
According to our survey, the representative codes are generated by filtering methods with dimensionality M smaller or equal to N, where N is the dimensionality of the input. Some other machine learning algorithms such as naïve Bayes or k-means can be used together with the filtering.<br />
Predictive neural networks are supervised, which find the best classification accuracy; meanwhile, clustering methods are unsupervised, which group similar samples or genes together. <br />
The goal of training prediction is to enhance the classification capability, and the goal of training classification is to find the optimal group for a new test set with unknown labels.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network filters for cancer prediction''' <br><br />
In the preprocessing step to classification, clustering, and statistical analysis, the autoencoders are more and more commonly-used, to extract generic genomic features. An autoencoder is composed of the encoder part and the decoder part. The encoder part is to learn the mapping between high-dimensional unlabeled input I(x) and the low-dimensional representations in the middle layer(s), and the decoder part is to learn the mapping from the middle layer’s representation to the high-dimensional output O(x). The reconstruction of the input can take the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) or the Logloss function as the objective function. <br />
<br />
$$ RMSE = \sqrt{ \frac{\sum{(I(x)-O(x))^2}}{n} } $$<br />
<br />
$$ Logloss = \sum{(I(x)\log(O(x)) + (1 - I(x))\log(1 - O(x)))} $$<br />
<br />
There are several types of autoencoders, such as stacked denoising autoencoders, contractive autoencoders, sparse autoencoders, regularized autoencoders, and variational autoencoders. The architecture of the networks varies in many parameters, such as depth and loss function. Each example of an autoencoder mentioned above has a different number of hidden layers, different activation functions (e.g. sigmoid function, exponential linear unit function), and different optimization algorithms (e.g. stochastic gradient descent optimization, Adam optimizer).<br />
<br />
Overfitting is a major problem that most autoencoders need to deal with to achieve high efficiency of the extracted features. Regularization, dropout, and sparsity are common solutions.<br />
<br />
The neural network filtering methods were used by different statistical methods and classifiers. The conventional methods include Cox regression model analysis, Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-means clustering, t-SNE and so on. The classifiers could be SVM or AdaBoost or others.<br />
<br />
By using neural network filtering methods, the model can be trained to learn low-dimensional representations, remove noises from the input, and gain better generalization performance by re-training the classifier with the newest output layer.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network prediction methods for cancer''' <br><br />
The prediction based on neural networks can build a network that maps the input features to an output with a number of neurons, which could be one or two for binary classification or more for multi-class classification. It can also build several independent binary neural networks for the multi-class classification, where the technique called “one-hot encoding” is applied.<br />
<br />
The codeword is a binary string <math>C'k</math> of length k whose j’th position is set to 1 for the j’th class, while other positions remain 0. The process of the neural networks is to map the input to the codeword iteratively, whose objective function is minimized in each iteration.<br />
<br />
Such cancer classifiers were applied to identify cancerous/non-cancerous samples, a specific cancer type, or the survivability risk. MLP models were used to predict the survival risk of lung cancer patients with several gene expressions as input. The deep generative model DeepCancer, the RBM-SVM and RBM-logistic regression models, the convolutional feedforward model DeepGene, Extreme Learning Machines (ELM), the one-dimensional convolutional framework model SE1DCNN, and GA-ANN model are all used for solving cancer issues mentioned above. This paper indicates that the performance of neural networks with MLP architecture as a classifier is better than those of SVM, logistic regression, naïve Bayes, classification trees, and KNN.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network clustering methods in cancer prediction''' <br><br />
Neural network clustering belongs to unsupervised learning. The input data are divided into different groups according to their feature similarity.<br />
The single-layered neural network SOM, which is unsupervised and without a backpropagation mechanism, is one of the traditional model-based techniques to be applied to gene expression data. The measurement of its accuracy could be Rand Index (RI), which can be improved to Adjusted Random Index (ARI) and Normalized Mutation Information (NMI).<br />
<br />
$$ RI=\frac{TP+TN}{TP+TN+FP+FN}$$<br />
<br />
In general, gene expression clustering considers either the relevance of samples-to-cluster assignment or that of gene-to-cluster assignment or both. The high dimensionality of gene expression samples poses a problem for traditional clustering algorithms such as k-means clustering, which uses a distance function to separate samples. Such an approach is not viable for high dimensional datasets. To solve the high dimensionality problem, there are two methods: clustering ensembles by running a single clustering algorithm several times, each of which has different initialization or number of parameters; and projective clustering by only considering a subset of the original features.<br />
<br />
SOM was applied on discriminating future tumor behavior using molecular alterations, whose results were not easy to be obtained by classic statistical models. Then this paper introduces two ensemble clustering frameworks: Random Double Clustering-based Cluster Ensembles (RDCCE) and Random Double Clustering-based Fuzzy Cluster Ensembles (RDCFCE). Their accuracies are high, but they have not taken the gene-to-cluster assignment into consideration.<br />
<br />
Also, the paper provides a double SOM based Clustering Ensemble Approach (SOM2CE) and double NG-based Clustering Ensemble Approach (NG2CE), which are robust to noisy genes. Moreover, Projective Clustering Ensemble (PCE) combines the advantages of both projective clustering and ensemble clustering, which is better than SOM and RDCFCE when there are irrelevant genes.<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
<br />
Cancer is a disease with a very high fatality rate that spreads worldwide, and it’s essential to analyze gene expression for discovering gene abnormalities and increasing survivability as a consequence. The previous analysis in the paper reveals that neural networks are essentially used for filtering the gene expressions, predicting their class, or clustering them.<br />
<br />
Neural network filtering methods are used to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions and remove their noise. In the article, the authors recommended deep architectures in comparison to shallow architectures for best practice, as they combine many nonlinearities. <br />
<br />
Neural network prediction methods can be used for both binary and multi-class problems. In the binary case, the network architecture has only one or two output neurons that diagnose a given sample as cancerous or non-cancerous. In comparison, the number of the output neurons in multi-class problems is equal to the number of classes. The authors suggested that the deep architecture with convolution layers which was the most recently used model proved efficient capability in predicting cancer subtypes, as it captures the spatial correlations between gene expressions.<br />
Clustering is another analysis tool that is used to divide the gene expressions into groups. The authors indicated that a hybrid approach combining both the assembling, clustering and projective clustering is more accurate than using single-point clustering algorithms, such as SOM, since those methods do not have the capability to distinguish the noisy genes.<br />
<br />
==Discussion==<br />
There are some technical problems that can be considered and improved for building new models. <br><br />
<br />
1. Overfitting: Since gene expression datasets are high dimensional and have a relatively small number of samples, it would be likely to properly fits the training data but not accurate for test samples due to the lack of generalization capability. The ways to avoid overfitting can be: (1). adding weight penalties using regularization; (2). using the average predictions from many models trained on different datasets; (3). dropout. (4) Augmentation of the dataset to produce more "observations".<br><br />
<br />
2. Model configuration and training: In order to reduce both the computational and memory expenses but also with high prediction accuracy, it’s crucial to properly set the network parameters. The possible ways can be: (1). proper initialization; (2). pruning the unimportant connections by removing the zero-valued neurons; (3). using ensemble learning framework by training different models using different parameter settings or using different parts of the dataset for each base model; (4). Using SMOTE for dealing with class imbalance on the high dimensional level. <br><br />
<br />
3. Model evaluation: In Braga-Neto and Dougherty's research, they have investigated several model evaluation methods: cross-validation, substitution and bootstrap methods. The cross-validation was found to be unreliable for small size data since it displayed excessive variance. The bootstrap method proved more accurate predictability.<br><br />
<br />
4. Study producibility: A study needs to be reproducible to enhance research reliability so that others can replicate the results using the same algorithms, data and methodology. Hence, the query used for getting the dataset should be stated.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
This paper reviewed the most recent neural network-based cancer prediction models and gene expression analysis tools. The analysis indicates that the neural network methods are able to serve as filters, predictors, and clustering methods, and also showed that the role of the neural network determines its general architecture. The authors showed that Neural Network filtering methods are a way of reducing the dimensionality of the gene expressions, as well as removing their noise for better model fitting. To give suggestions for future neural network-based approaches, the authors highlighted some critical points that have to be considered such as overfitting and class imbalance, and suggest choosing different network parameters or combining two or more of the presented approaches. One of the biggest challenges for cancer prediction modelers is deciding on the network architecture (i.e. the number of hidden layers and neurons), as there are currently no guidelines to follow to obtain high prediction accuracy. The authors discovered that there is no algorithm available to concretely determine an optimal number of hidden layers or nodes and found that many papers simply implemented a trial and error method to reduce loss in the model.<br />
<br />
==Critiques==<br />
<br />
While results indicate that the functionality of the neural network determines its general architecture, the decision on the number of hidden layers, neurons, hypermeters, and learning algorithms is made using trial-and-error techniques. Therefore improvements in this area of the model might need to be explored in order to obtain better results and in order to make more convincing statements.<br />
<br />
An issue that one must be mindful of is the underlying distribution of data. Cancer is an extremely complex genetic disease and the predictions would depend on so many variables, a number of which will not even be present in the dataset as they might have been collected. So there is a need for extensive validation when it comes to applying deep learning methods to cancer-related data.<br />
<br />
In the field of medical sciences and molecular biology, interpretability of results is imperative as often experts seek not just to solve the issue at hand but to understand the causal relationships. Having a high ROC value may not necessarily convince other experts on the validity of the finding because the underlying details of cancer symptoms have been abstracted in a complex neural network as a black box. However, the neural network clustering method suggested in this paper does offer a good compromise because it enables humans to visual low-level features but still gives experts the control on making various predictions using well-studied traditional techniques.<br />
<br />
With high dimensionality features, kernel SVM is another option for cancer prediction. Jiang et. al. developed a Hadamard Kernel for predicting breast cancer using gene expression data, and it utilizes the Kernel trick to avoid high computational efforts (link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5763304/). Compared against linear, quadratic, RBF and correlation kernels, Hadamard Kernel performs best with the highest averaged area under the ROC curve (AUC) value. It may be interesting to compare the performance and accuracy between the Hadamard Kernel and cancer prediction models with various number of hidden layers and neurons.<br />
<br />
Although the authors presented technical details about data processing, training approaches evaluation metric, and addressed many practical issues that can be considered for cancer prediction, no novel methods or models are proposed. It's more like a proof-of-concept about the feasibility of different models on cancer prediction.<br />
<br />
As the authors indicate neural networks would be a useful tool for cancer prediction models, the article is lacking an example for implementing neural networks to provide persuasive support for their arguments.<br />
<br />
The inheritance of cancer is complex and changeable. The predicted variables are therefore very complicated, so for the model of the learning data set, a more adequate training set is needed to learn. And multi-party verification of the learned model.<br />
<br />
The authors mentioned many different neural network models and compared them. It would be better if more details of a commonly applied model with relatively high accuracy could be given such as how the model is built. An article named Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression gives explanations of CNN in detail.<br />
<br />
The authors briefly discussed methods and algorithms being used in the presented paper in their summary. However, a very little amount of technical details were provided to the readers. The summary itself is lacking specific examples for the aforementioned algorithms, and datasets which were used in the original analysis were only introduced in one or two sentences. As a result, the summary and conclusion appear to be unconvincing to the readers.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
[1] Daoud, M., & Mayo, M. (2019). A survey of neural network-based cancer prediction models from microarray data. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 97, 204–214.<br />
<br />
[2] Brier GW. 1950. Verification of forecasts expressed in terms of probabilities. Monthly Weather Review 78: 1–3<br />
<br />
[3] Harald Steck, Balaji Krishnapuram, Cary Dehing-oberije, Philippe Lambin, Vikas C. Raykar. On ranking in survival analysis: Bounds on the concordance index. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (2008), pp. 1209-1216<br />
<br />
[4] Google Developers. (2020 February 10). ''Classification: ROC Curve and AUC.'' Machine Learning Crash Course. https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/classification/roc-and-auc<br />
<br />
[5] Mostavi, M., Chiu, YC., Huang, Y. et al. Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression. ''BMC Med Genomics'' '''13''', 44 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12920-020-0677-2</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Summary_for_survey_of_neural_networked-based_cancer_prediction_models_from_microarray_data&diff=47789Summary for survey of neural networked-based cancer prediction models from microarray data2020-11-29T20:24:02Z<p>J632liu: </p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Rao Fu, Siqi Li, Yuqin Fang, Zeping Zhou<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Microarray technology can help researchers quickly detect genetic information and is widely used to analyze genetic diseases. Researchers use this technology to compare normal and abnormal cancerous tissues to gain insights into the pathology of cancer. <br />
<br />
However, due to the high dimensionality of the gene expression, accuracy and computation time of the model might be affected. The following two approaches are adopted to cope with this problem: the feature selection method and the feature creating model. The formal one, similar to the well-known principle component analysis method, aims to focus on key features and ignore minor noises. On the other hand, the latter one, similar to scale invariant feature transformations, aims to combine existing features or map them to a new low-dimensional space.<br />
<br />
Comparing to neural network models presented by others, this paper is specifically designed for predicting cancer using gene expression data. Thus, we will review the latest neural network-based cancer prediction models by presenting the methodology of preprocessing, filtering, prediction, and clustering gene expressions.<br />
<br />
== Background == <br />
<br />
'''Neural Network''' <br><br />
Neural networks are often used to solve non-linear complex problems. It is an operational model consisting of a large number of neurons connected to each other by different weights. In this network structure, each neuron is related to an activation function such as sigmoid or rectified linear activation functions. To train the network, the inputs are fed forward and the activation function value is calculated at every neuron. The difference between the output of the neural network and the actual value is what we call an error.<br />
The backpropagation mechanism is one of the most commonly used algorithms in solving neural network problems. By using this algorithm, we optimize the objective function by propagating back the generated error through the network to adjust the weights.<br />
In the next sections, we will use the above algorithm but with different network architectures and a different number of neurons to review the neural network-based cancer prediction models for learning the gene expression features.<br />
<br />
'''Cancer prediction models'''<br><br />
Cancer prediction models often contain more than 1 method to achieve high prediction accuracy with a more accurate prognosis and it also aims to reduce the cost of patients.<br />
<br />
High dimensionality and spatial structure are the two main factors that can affect the accuracy of the cancer prediction models. They add irrelevant noisy features to our selected models. We have 3 ways to determine the accuracy of a model.<br />
<br />
The first is called the ROC curve. ROC curves, receiver operating characteristic curves, are graphs that show the true positive rate against the false-positive rate [4]. It reflects the sensitivity of the response to the same signal stimulus under different criterias. To test its validity, we need to consider it with the confidence interval. Usually, a model is considered acceptable when its ROC is greater than 0.7. <br />
<br />
A different machine learning problem is predicting the survival time. The performance of a model that predicts survival time can be measured using two metrics. The problem of predicting survival time can be seen as a ranking problem, where survival times of different subjects are ranked against each other. CI (Concordance Index) is a measure of how good a model ranks survival times and explains the concordance probability of the predicted and observed survival. The closer its value to 0.7, the better the model is. We can express the ordering of survival times in an order graph <math display="inline">G = (V, E)</math> where the vertices <math display="inline">V</math> are the individual survival times, and the edges <math display="inline">E_{ij}</math> from individual <math display="inline">i</math> to <math display="inline">j</math> indicate that <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math>, where <math display="inline">T_i, T_j</math> are the survival times for individuals <math display="inline">i,j</math> respectively. Then we can write <math display="inline">CI = \frac{1}{|E|}\sum_{i,j}I(f(i) < f(j))</math> where <math display="inline">|E|</math> is the number of edges in the order graph (ie. the total number of comparable pairs), and <math display="inline">I(f(i) < f(j)) = 1</math> if the predictor <math display="inline">f</math> correctly ranks <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math> [3].<br />
<br />
Another metric is the Brier score, which measures the average difference between the observed and the estimated survival rate in a given period of time. It ranges from 0 to 1, and a lower score indicates higher accuracy. It is defined as <math display="inline">\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n(f_i - o_i)^2</math> where <math display="inline">f_i</math> is the predicted survival rate, and <math display="inline">o_i</math> is the observed survival rate [2].<br />
<br />
== Neural network-based cancer prediction models ==<br />
An extensive search relevant to neural network-based cancer prediction was performed using Google scholar and other electronic databases namely PubMed and Scopus with keywords such as “Neural Networks AND Cancer Prediction” and “gene expression clustering”, and only articles between 2013 and 2018 with available accessibility were considered. The chosen papers covered cancer classification, discovery, survivability prediction, and statistical analysis models. The following figure 1 shows a graph representing the number of citations including filtering, predictive, and clustering for chosen papers. <br />
<br />
[[File:f1.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Datasets and preprocessing''' <br><br />
Most studies investigating automatic cancer prediction and clustering used datasets such as the TCGA, UCI, NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus and Kentridge biomedical databases. There are a few techniques used in processing dataset including removing the genes that have zero expression across all samples, Normalization, filtering with p-value > <math>10^{-5}</math> to remove some unwanted technical variation and <math>\log_2</math> transformations. Statistical methods, neural networks, were applied to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions by selecting a subset of genes. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) can also be used as an initial preprocessing step to extract the dataset's features. The PCA method linearly transforms the dataset features into lower dimensional space without capturing the complex relationships between the features. However, simply removing the genes that were not measured by the other datasets could not overcome the class imbalance problem. In that case, one research used Synthetic Minority Class Over Sampling method to generate synthetic minority class samples, which may lead to a sparse matrix problem. Clustering was also applied in some studies for labeling data by grouping the samples into high-risk, low-risk groups, and so on. <br />
<br />
The following table presents the dataset used by considered reference, the applied normalization technique, the cancer type and the dimensionality of the datasets.<br />
<br />
[[File:Datasets and preprocessing.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Neural network architecture''' <br><br />
Most recent studies reveal that neural network methods are used for filtering, predicting and clustering in cancer prediction. <br />
<br />
*''filtering'': Filter the gene expressions to eliminate noise or reduce dimensionality. Then use the resulted features with statistical methods or machine learning classification and clustering tools as figure 2 indicates.<br />
<br />
*''predicting'': Extract features and improve the accuracy of prediction (classification).<br />
<br />
*''clustering'': Divide the gene expressions or samples based on similarity.<br />
<br />
[[File:filtering gane.png]]<br />
<br />
All the neurons in the neural network work together as feature detectors to learn the features from the input. In order to categorize a neural network as filtering, predicting, or clustering method, we looked at the overall role that network provided within the framework of cancer prediction. Filtering methods are trained to remove the input’s noise and to extract the most representative features that best describe the unlabeled gene expressions. Predicting methods are trained to extract the features that are significant to prediction, therefore its objective functions measure how accurately the network is able to predict the class of input. Clustering methods are trained to divide unlabeled samples into groups based on their similarities.<br />
<br />
'''Building neural networks-based approaches for gene expression prediction''' <br><br />
According to our survey, the representative codes are generated by filtering methods with dimensionality M smaller or equal to N, where N is the dimensionality of the input. Some other machine learning algorithms such as naïve Bayes or k-means can be used together with the filtering.<br />
Predictive neural networks are supervised, which find the best classification accuracy; meanwhile, clustering methods are unsupervised, which group similar samples or genes together. <br />
The goal of training prediction is to enhance the classification capability, and the goal of training classification is to find the optimal group for a new test set with unknown labels.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network filters for cancer prediction''' <br><br />
In the preprocessing step to classification, clustering, and statistical analysis, the autoencoders are more and more commonly-used, to extract generic genomic features. An autoencoder is composed of the encoder part and the decoder part. The encoder part is to learn the mapping between high-dimensional unlabeled input I(x) and the low-dimensional representations in the middle layer(s), and the decoder part is to learn the mapping from the middle layer’s representation to the high-dimensional output O(x). The reconstruction of the input can take the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) or the Logloss function as the objective function. <br />
<br />
$$ RMSE = \sqrt{ \frac{\sum{(I(x)-O(x))^2}}{n} } $$<br />
<br />
$$ Logloss = \sum{(I(x)\log(O(x)) + (1 - I(x))\log(1 - O(x)))} $$<br />
<br />
There are several types of autoencoders, such as stacked denoising autoencoders, contractive autoencoders, sparse autoencoders, regularized autoencoders, and variational autoencoders. The architecture of the networks varies in many parameters, such as depth and loss function. Each example of an autoencoder mentioned above has a different number of hidden layers, different activation functions (e.g. sigmoid function, exponential linear unit function), and different optimization algorithms (e.g. stochastic gradient descent optimization, Adam optimizer).<br />
<br />
Overfitting is a major problem that most autoencoders need to deal with to achieve high efficiency of the extracted features. Regularization, dropout, and sparsity are common solutions.<br />
<br />
The neural network filtering methods were used by different statistical methods and classifiers. The conventional methods include Cox regression model analysis, Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-means clustering, t-SNE and so on. The classifiers could be SVM or AdaBoost or others.<br />
<br />
By using neural network filtering methods, the model can be trained to learn low-dimensional representations, remove noises from the input, and gain better generalization performance by re-training the classifier with the newest output layer.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network prediction methods for cancer''' <br><br />
The prediction based on neural networks can build a network that maps the input features to an output with a number of neurons, which could be one or two for binary classification or more for multi-class classification. It can also build several independent binary neural networks for the multi-class classification, where the technique called “one-hot encoding” is applied.<br />
<br />
The codeword is a binary string <math>C'k</math> of length k whose j’th position is set to 1 for the j’th class, while other positions remain 0. The process of the neural networks is to map the input to the codeword iteratively, whose objective function is minimized in each iteration.<br />
<br />
Such cancer classifiers were applied to identify cancerous/non-cancerous samples, a specific cancer type, or the survivability risk. MLP models were used to predict the survival risk of lung cancer patients with several gene expressions as input. The deep generative model DeepCancer, the RBM-SVM and RBM-logistic regression models, the convolutional feedforward model DeepGene, Extreme Learning Machines (ELM), the one-dimensional convolutional framework model SE1DCNN, and GA-ANN model are all used for solving cancer issues mentioned above. This paper indicates that the performance of neural networks with MLP architecture as a classifier is better than those of SVM, logistic regression, naïve Bayes, classification trees, and KNN.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network clustering methods in cancer prediction''' <br><br />
Neural network clustering belongs to unsupervised learning. The input data are divided into different groups according to their feature similarity.<br />
The single-layered neural network SOM, which is unsupervised and without a backpropagation mechanism, is one of the traditional model-based techniques to be applied to gene expression data. The measurement of its accuracy could be Rand Index (RI), which can be improved to Adjusted Random Index (ARI) and Normalized Mutation Information (NMI).<br />
<br />
$$ RI=\frac{TP+TN}{TP+TN+FP+FN}$$<br />
<br />
In general, gene expression clustering considers either the relevance of samples-to-cluster assignment or that of gene-to-cluster assignment or both. The high dimensionality of gene expression samples poses a problem for traditional clustering algorithms such as k-means clustering, which uses a distance function to separate samples. Such an approach is not viable for high dimensional datasets. To solve the high dimensionality problem, there are two methods: clustering ensembles by running a single clustering algorithm several times, each of which has different initialization or number of parameters; and projective clustering by only considering a subset of the original features.<br />
<br />
SOM was applied on discriminating future tumor behavior using molecular alterations, whose results were not easy to be obtained by classic statistical models. Then this paper introduces two ensemble clustering frameworks: Random Double Clustering-based Cluster Ensembles (RDCCE) and Random Double Clustering-based Fuzzy Cluster Ensembles (RDCFCE). Their accuracies are high, but they have not taken the gene-to-cluster assignment into consideration.<br />
<br />
Also, the paper provides a double SOM based Clustering Ensemble Approach (SOM2CE) and double NG-based Clustering Ensemble Approach (NG2CE), which are robust to noisy genes. Moreover, Projective Clustering Ensemble (PCE) combines the advantages of both projective clustering and ensemble clustering, which is better than SOM and RDCFCE when there are irrelevant genes.<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
<br />
Cancer is a disease with a very high fatality rate that spreads worldwide, and it’s essential to analyze gene expression for discovering gene abnormalities and increasing survivability as a consequence. The previous analysis in the paper reveals that neural networks are essentially used for filtering the gene expressions, predicting their class, or clustering them.<br />
<br />
Neural network filtering methods are used to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions and remove their noise. In the article, the authors recommended deep architectures in comparison to shallow architectures for best practice, as they combine many nonlinearities. <br />
<br />
Neural network prediction methods can be used for both binary and multi-class problems. In the binary case, the network architecture has only one or two output neurons that diagnose a given sample as cancerous or non-cancerous. In comparison, the number of the output neurons in multi-class problems is equal to the number of classes. The authors suggested that the deep architecture with convolution layers which was the most recently used model proved efficient capability in predicting cancer subtypes, as it captures the spatial correlations between gene expressions.<br />
Clustering is another analysis tool that is used to divide the gene expressions into groups. The authors indicated that a hybrid approach combining both the assembling, clustering and projective clustering is more accurate than using single-point clustering algorithms, such as SOM, since those methods do not have the capability to distinguish the noisy genes.<br />
<br />
==Discussion==<br />
There are some technical problems that can be considered and improved for building new models. <br><br />
<br />
1. Overfitting: Since gene expression datasets are high dimensional and have a relatively small number of samples, it would be likely to properly fits the training data but not accurate for test samples due to the lack of generalization capability. The ways to avoid overfitting can be: (1). adding weight penalties using regularization; (2). using the average predictions from many models trained on different datasets; (3). dropout. (4) Augmentation of the dataset to produce more "observations".<br><br />
<br />
2. Model configuration and training: In order to reduce both the computational and memory expenses but also with high prediction accuracy, it’s crucial to properly set the network parameters. The possible ways can be: (1). proper initialization; (2). pruning the unimportant connections by removing the zero-valued neurons; (3). using ensemble learning framework by training different models using different parameter settings or using different parts of the dataset for each base model; (4). Using SMOTE for dealing with class imbalance on the high dimensional level. <br><br />
<br />
3. Model evaluation: In Braga-Neto and Dougherty's research, they have investigated several model evaluation methods: cross-validation, substitution and bootstrap methods. The cross-validation was found to be unreliable for small size data since it displayed excessive variance. The bootstrap method proved more accurate predictability.<br><br />
<br />
4. Study producibility: A study needs to be reproducible to enhance research reliability so that others can replicate the results using the same algorithms, data and methodology. Hence, the query used for getting the dataset should be stated.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
This paper reviewed the most recent neural network-based cancer prediction models and gene expression analysis tools. The analysis indicates that the neural network methods are able to serve as filters, predictors, and clustering methods, and also showed that the role of the neural network determines its general architecture. The authors showed that Neural Network filtering methods are a way of reducing the dimensionality of the gene expressions, as well as removing their noise for better model fitting. To give suggestions for future neural network-based approaches, the authors highlighted some critical points that have to be considered such as overfitting and class imbalance, and suggest choosing different network parameters or combining two or more of the presented approaches. One of the biggest challenges for cancer prediction modelers is deciding on the network architecture (i.e. the number of hidden layers and neurons), as there are currently no guidelines to follow to obtain high prediction accuracy. The authors discovered that there is no algorithm available to concretely determine an optimal number of hidden layers or nodes and found that many papers simply implemented a trial and error method to reduce loss in the model.<br />
<br />
==Critiques==<br />
<br />
While results indicate that the functionality of the neural network determines its general architecture, the decision on the number of hidden layers, neurons, hypermeters, and learning algorithms is made using trial-and-error techniques. Therefore improvements in this area of the model might need to be explored in order to obtain better results and in order to make more convincing statements.<br />
<br />
An issue that one must be mindful of is the underlying distribution of data. Cancer is an extremely complex genetic disease and the predictions would depend on so many variables, a number of which will not even be present in the dataset as they might have been collected. So there is a need for extensive validation when it comes to applying deep learning methods to cancer-related data.<br />
<br />
In the field of medical sciences and molecular biology, interpretability of results is imperative as often experts seek not just to solve the issue at hand but to understand the causal relationships. Having a high ROC value may not necessarily convince other experts on the validity of the finding because the underlying details of cancer symptoms have been abstracted in a complex neural network as a black box. However, the neural network clustering method suggested in this paper does offer a good compromise because it enables humans to visual low-level features but still gives experts the control on making various predictions using well-studied traditional techniques.<br />
<br />
With high dimensionality features, kernel SVM is another option for cancer prediction. Jiang et. al. developed a Hadamard Kernel for predicting breast cancer using gene expression data, and it utilizes the Kernel trick to avoid high computational efforts (link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5763304/). Compared against linear, quadratic, RBF and correlation kernels, Hadamard Kernel performs best with the highest averaged area under the ROC curve (AUC) value. It may be interesting to compare the performance and accuracy between the Hadamard Kernel and cancer prediction models with various number of hidden layers and neurons.<br />
<br />
Although the authors presented technical details about data processing, training approaches evaluation metric, and addressed many practical issues that can be considered for cancer prediction, no novel methods or models are proposed. It's more like a proof-of-concept about the feasibility of different models on cancer prediction.<br />
<br />
As the authors indicate neural networks would be a useful tool for cancer prediction models, the article is lacking an example for implementing neural networks to provide persuasive support for their arguments.<br />
<br />
The inheritance of cancer is complex and changeable. The predicted variables are therefore very complicated, so for the model of the learning data set, a more adequate training set is needed to learn. And multi-party verification of the learned model.<br />
<br />
The authors mentioned many different neural network models and compared them. It would be better if more details of a commonly applied model with relatively high accuracy could be given such as how the model is built. An article named Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression gives explanations of CNN in detail.<br />
<br />
The authors briefly discussed methods and algorithms being used in the presented paper in their summary. However, a very little amount of technical details were provided to the readers. The summary itself is lacking specific examples for the aforementioned algorithms, and datasets which were used in the original analysis were only introduced in one or two sentences. As a result, the summary and conclusion appear to be unconvincing to the readers.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
[1] Daoud, M., & Mayo, M. (2019). A survey of neural network-based cancer prediction models from microarray data. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 97, 204–214.<br />
<br />
[2] Brier GW. 1950. Verification of forecasts expressed in terms of probabilities. Monthly Weather Review 78: 1–3<br />
<br />
[3] Harald Steck, Balaji Krishnapuram, Cary Dehing-oberije, Philippe Lambin, Vikas C. Raykar. On ranking in survival analysis: Bounds on the concordance index. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (2008), pp. 1209-1216<br />
<br />
[4] Google Developers. (2020 February 10). ''Classification: ROC Curve and AUC.'' Machine Learning Crash Course. https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/classification/roc-and-auc<br />
<br />
[5] Mostavi, M., Chiu, YC., Huang, Y. et al. Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression. ''BMC Med Genomics'' '''13''', 44 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12920-020-0677-2</div>J632liuhttp://wiki.math.uwaterloo.ca/statwiki/index.php?title=Summary_for_survey_of_neural_networked-based_cancer_prediction_models_from_microarray_data&diff=47770Summary for survey of neural networked-based cancer prediction models from microarray data2020-11-29T19:51:31Z<p>J632liu: /* Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Presented by == <br />
Rao Fu, Siqi Li, Yuqin Fang, Zeping Zhou<br />
<br />
== Introduction == <br />
Microarray technology can help researchers quickly detect genetic information and is widely used to analyze genetic diseases. Researchers use this technology to compare normal and abnormal cancerous tissues to gain insights into the pathology of cancer. <br />
<br />
However, the high dimensionality of the gene expressions can affect the accuracy and computation time of this cancer model. To cope with this problem, we could use two approaches: the feature selection method or the feature creation method. The former one(feature selection methods) reduce the dimensionality of the data-set by selecting only a subset of the key discerning features as inputs to the model. In contrast, the latter one(feature creation methods) creates an entirely new set of lower-dimensional features, meant to represent the original (higher-dimensional) features. A well-known feature reduction method we have studied in class is PCA (principal component analysis).<br />
<br />
Comparing to neural network models presented by others, this paper is specifically designed for predicting cancer using gene expression data. Thus, we will review the latest neural network-based cancer prediction models by presenting the methodology of preprocessing, filtering, prediction, and clustering gene expressions.<br />
<br />
== Background == <br />
<br />
'''Neural Network''' <br><br />
Neural networks are often used to solve non-linear complex problems. It is an operational model consisting of a large number of neurons connected to each other by different weights. In this network structure, each neuron is related to an activation function such as sigmoid or rectified linear activation functions. To train the network, the inputs are fed forward and the activation function value is calculated at every neuron. The difference between the output of the neural network and the actual value is what we call an error.<br />
The backpropagation mechanism is one of the most commonly used algorithms in solving neural network problems. By using this algorithm, we optimize the objective function by propagating back the generated error through the network to adjust the weights.<br />
In the next sections, we will use the above algorithm but with different network architectures and a different number of neurons to review the neural network-based cancer prediction models for learning the gene expression features.<br />
<br />
'''Cancer prediction models'''<br><br />
Cancer prediction models often contain more than 1 method to achieve high prediction accuracy with a more accurate prognosis and it also aims to reduce the cost of patients.<br />
<br />
High dimensionality and spatial structure are the two main factors that can affect the accuracy of the cancer prediction models. They add irrelevant noisy features to our selected models. We have 3 ways to determine the accuracy of a model.<br />
<br />
The first is called the ROC curve. ROC curves, receiver operating characteristic curves, are graphs that show the true positive rate against the false-positive rate [4]. It reflects the sensitivity of the response to the same signal stimulus under different criterias. To test its validity, we need to consider it with the confidence interval. Usually, a model is considered acceptable when its ROC is greater than 0.7. <br />
<br />
A different machine learning problem is predicting the survival time. The performance of a model that predicts survival time can be measured using two metrics. The problem of predicting survival time can be seen as a ranking problem, where survival times of different subjects are ranked against each other. CI (Concordance Index) is a measure of how good a model ranks survival times and explains the concordance probability of the predicted and observed survival. The closer its value to 0.7, the better the model is. We can express the ordering of survival times in an order graph <math display="inline">G = (V, E)</math> where the vertices <math display="inline">V</math> are the individual survival times, and the edges <math display="inline">E_{ij}</math> from individual <math display="inline">i</math> to <math display="inline">j</math> indicate that <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math>, where <math display="inline">T_i, T_j</math> are the survival times for individuals <math display="inline">i,j</math> respectively. Then we can write <math display="inline">CI = \frac{1}{|E|}\sum_{i,j}I(f(i) < f(j))</math> where <math display="inline">|E|</math> is the number of edges in the order graph (ie. the total number of comparable pairs), and <math display="inline">I(f(i) < f(j)) = 1</math> if the predictor <math display="inline">f</math> correctly ranks <math display="inline">T_i < T_j</math> [3].<br />
<br />
Another metric is the Brier score, which measures the average difference between the observed and the estimated survival rate in a given period of time. It ranges from 0 to 1, and a lower score indicates higher accuracy. It is defined as <math display="inline">\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n(f_i - o_i)^2</math> where <math display="inline">f_i</math> is the predicted survival rate, and <math display="inline">o_i</math> is the observed survival rate [2].<br />
<br />
== Neural network-based cancer prediction models ==<br />
An extensive search relevant to neural network-based cancer prediction was performed using Google scholar and other electronic databases namely PubMed and Scopus with keywords such as “Neural Networks AND Cancer Prediction” and “gene expression clustering”, and only articles between 2013 and 2018 with available accessibility were considered. The chosen papers covered cancer classification, discovery, survivability prediction, and statistical analysis models. The following figure 1 shows a graph representing the number of citations including filtering, predictive, and clustering for chosen papers. <br />
<br />
[[File:f1.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Datasets and preprocessing''' <br><br />
Most studies investigating automatic cancer prediction and clustering used datasets such as the TCGA, UCI, NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus and Kentridge biomedical databases. There are a few techniques used in processing dataset including removing the genes that have zero expression across all samples, Normalization, filtering with p-value > <math>10^{-5}</math> to remove some unwanted technical variation and <math>\log_2</math> transformations. Statistical methods, neural networks, were applied to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions by selecting a subset of genes. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) can also be used as an initial preprocessing step to extract the dataset's features. The PCA method linearly transforms the dataset features into lower dimensional space without capturing the complex relationships between the features. However, simply removing the genes that were not measured by the other datasets could not overcome the class imbalance problem. In that case, one research used Synthetic Minority Class Over Sampling method to generate synthetic minority class samples, which may lead to a sparse matrix problem. Clustering was also applied in some studies for labeling data by grouping the samples into high-risk, low-risk groups, and so on. <br />
<br />
The following table presents the dataset used by considered reference, the applied normalization technique, the cancer type and the dimensionality of the datasets.<br />
<br />
[[File:Datasets and preprocessing.png]]<br />
<br />
'''Neural network architecture''' <br><br />
Most recent studies reveal that neural network methods are used for filtering, predicting and clustering in cancer prediction. <br />
<br />
*''filtering'': Filter the gene expressions to eliminate noise or reduce dimensionality. Then use the resulted features with statistical methods or machine learning classification and clustering tools as figure 2 indicates.<br />
<br />
*''predicting'': Extract features and improve the accuracy of prediction (classification).<br />
<br />
*''clustering'': Divide the gene expressions or samples based on similarity.<br />
<br />
[[File:filtering gane.png]]<br />
<br />
All the neurons in the neural network work together as feature detectors to learn the features from the input. In order to categorize a neural network as filtering, predicting, or clustering method, we looked at the overall role that network provided within the framework of cancer prediction. Filtering methods are trained to remove the input’s noise and to extract the most representative features that best describe the unlabeled gene expressions. Predicting methods are trained to extract the features that are significant to prediction, therefore its objective functions measure how accurately the network is able to predict the class of input. Clustering methods are trained to divide unlabeled samples into groups based on their similarities.<br />
<br />
'''Building neural networks-based approaches for gene expression prediction''' <br><br />
According to our survey, the representative codes are generated by filtering methods with dimensionality M smaller or equal to N, where N is the dimensionality of the input. Some other machine learning algorithms such as naïve Bayes or k-means can be used together with the filtering.<br />
Predictive neural networks are supervised, which find the best classification accuracy; meanwhile, clustering methods are unsupervised, which group similar samples or genes together. <br />
The goal of training prediction is to enhance the classification capability, and the goal of training classification is to find the optimal group for a new test set with unknown labels.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network filters for cancer prediction''' <br><br />
In the preprocessing step to classification, clustering, and statistical analysis, the autoencoders are more and more commonly-used, to extract generic genomic features. An autoencoder is composed of the encoder part and the decoder part. The encoder part is to learn the mapping between high-dimensional unlabeled input I(x) and the low-dimensional representations in the middle layer(s), and the decoder part is to learn the mapping from the middle layer’s representation to the high-dimensional output O(x). The reconstruction of the input can take the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) or the Logloss function as the objective function. <br />
<br />
$$ RMSE = \sqrt{ \frac{\sum{(I(x)-O(x))^2}}{n} } $$<br />
<br />
$$ Logloss = \sum{(I(x)\log(O(x)) + (1 - I(x))\log(1 - O(x)))} $$<br />
<br />
There are several types of autoencoders, such as stacked denoising autoencoders, contractive autoencoders, sparse autoencoders, regularized autoencoders, and variational autoencoders. The architecture of the networks varies in many parameters, such as depth and loss function. Each example of an autoencoder mentioned above has a different number of hidden layers, different activation functions (e.g. sigmoid function, exponential linear unit function), and different optimization algorithms (e.g. stochastic gradient descent optimization, Adam optimizer).<br />
<br />
Overfitting is a major problem that most autoencoders need to deal with to achieve high efficiency of the extracted features. Regularization, dropout, and sparsity are common solutions.<br />
<br />
The neural network filtering methods were used by different statistical methods and classifiers. The conventional methods include Cox regression model analysis, Support Vector Machine (SVM), K-means clustering, t-SNE and so on. The classifiers could be SVM or AdaBoost or others.<br />
<br />
By using neural network filtering methods, the model can be trained to learn low-dimensional representations, remove noises from the input, and gain better generalization performance by re-training the classifier with the newest output layer.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network prediction methods for cancer''' <br><br />
The prediction based on neural networks can build a network that maps the input features to an output with a number of neurons, which could be one or two for binary classification or more for multi-class classification. It can also build several independent binary neural networks for the multi-class classification, where the technique called “one-hot encoding” is applied.<br />
<br />
The codeword is a binary string <math>C'k</math> of length k whose j’th position is set to 1 for the j’th class, while other positions remain 0. The process of the neural networks is to map the input to the codeword iteratively, whose objective function is minimized in each iteration.<br />
<br />
Such cancer classifiers were applied to identify cancerous/non-cancerous samples, a specific cancer type, or the survivability risk. MLP models were used to predict the survival risk of lung cancer patients with several gene expressions as input. The deep generative model DeepCancer, the RBM-SVM and RBM-logistic regression models, the convolutional feedforward model DeepGene, Extreme Learning Machines (ELM), the one-dimensional convolutional framework model SE1DCNN, and GA-ANN model are all used for solving cancer issues mentioned above. This paper indicates that the performance of neural networks with MLP architecture as a classifier is better than those of SVM, logistic regression, naïve Bayes, classification trees, and KNN.<br />
<br />
'''Neural network clustering methods in cancer prediction''' <br><br />
Neural network clustering belongs to unsupervised learning. The input data are divided into different groups according to their feature similarity.<br />
The single-layered neural network SOM, which is unsupervised and without a backpropagation mechanism, is one of the traditional model-based techniques to be applied to gene expression data. The measurement of its accuracy could be Rand Index (RI), which can be improved to Adjusted Random Index (ARI) and Normalized Mutation Information (NMI).<br />
<br />
$$ RI=\frac{TP+TN}{TP+TN+FP+FN}$$<br />
<br />
In general, gene expression clustering considers either the relevance of samples-to-cluster assignment or that of gene-to-cluster assignment or both. The high dimensionality of gene expression samples poses a problem for traditional clustering algorithms such as k-means clustering, which uses a distance function to separate samples. Such an approach is not viable for high dimensional datasets. To solve the high dimensionality problem, there are two methods: clustering ensembles by running a single clustering algorithm several times, each of which has different initialization or number of parameters; and projective clustering by only considering a subset of the original features.<br />
<br />
SOM was applied on discriminating future tumor behavior using molecular alterations, whose results were not easy to be obtained by classic statistical models. Then this paper introduces two ensemble clustering frameworks: Random Double Clustering-based Cluster Ensembles (RDCCE) and Random Double Clustering-based Fuzzy Cluster Ensembles (RDCFCE). Their accuracies are high, but they have not taken the gene-to-cluster assignment into consideration.<br />
<br />
Also, the paper provides a double SOM based Clustering Ensemble Approach (SOM2CE) and double NG-based Clustering Ensemble Approach (NG2CE), which are robust to noisy genes. Moreover, Projective Clustering Ensemble (PCE) combines the advantages of both projective clustering and ensemble clustering, which is better than SOM and RDCFCE when there are irrelevant genes.<br />
<br />
== Summary ==<br />
<br />
Cancer is a disease with a very high fatality rate that spreads worldwide, and it’s essential to analyze gene expression for discovering gene abnormalities and increasing survivability as a consequence. The previous analysis in the paper reveals that neural networks are essentially used for filtering the gene expressions, predicting their class, or clustering them.<br />
<br />
Neural network filtering methods are used to reduce the dimensionality of the gene expressions and remove their noise. In the article, the authors recommended deep architectures in comparison to shallow architectures for best practice, as they combine many nonlinearities. <br />
<br />
Neural network prediction methods can be used for both binary and multi-class problems. In the binary case, the network architecture has only one or two output neurons that diagnose a given sample as cancerous or non-cancerous. In comparison, the number of the output neurons in multi-class problems is equal to the number of classes. The authors suggested that the deep architecture with convolution layers which was the most recently used model proved efficient capability in predicting cancer subtypes, as it captures the spatial correlations between gene expressions.<br />
Clustering is another analysis tool that is used to divide the gene expressions into groups. The authors indicated that a hybrid approach combining both the assembling, clustering and projective clustering is more accurate than using single-point clustering algorithms, such as SOM, since those methods do not have the capability to distinguish the noisy genes.<br />
<br />
==Discussion==<br />
There are some technical problems that can be considered and improved for building new models. <br><br />
<br />
1. Overfitting: Since gene expression datasets are high dimensional and have a relatively small number of samples, it would be likely to properly fits the training data but not accurate for test samples due to the lack of generalization capability. The ways to avoid overfitting can be: (1). adding weight penalties using regularization; (2). using the average predictions from many models trained on different datasets; (3). dropout. (4) Augmentation of the dataset to produce more "observations".<br><br />
<br />
2. Model configuration and training: In order to reduce both the computational and memory expenses but also with high prediction accuracy, it’s crucial to properly set the network parameters. The possible ways can be: (1). proper initialization; (2). pruning the unimportant connections by removing the zero-valued neurons; (3). using ensemble learning framework by training different models using different parameter settings or using different parts of the dataset for each base model; (4). Using SMOTE for dealing with class imbalance on the high dimensional level. <br><br />
<br />
3. Model evaluation: In Braga-Neto and Dougherty's research, they have investigated several model evaluation methods: cross-validation, substitution and bootstrap methods. The cross-validation was found to be unreliable for small size data since it displayed excessive variance. The bootstrap method proved more accurate predictability.<br><br />
<br />
4. Study producibility: A study needs to be reproducible to enhance research reliability so that others can replicate the results using the same algorithms, data and methodology. Hence, the query used for getting the dataset should be stated.<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
This paper reviewed the most recent neural network-based cancer prediction models and gene expression analysis tools. The analysis indicates that the neural network methods are able to serve as filters, predictors, and clustering methods, and also showed that the role of the neural network determines its general architecture. The authors showed that Neural Network filtering methods are a way of reducing the dimensionality of the gene expressions, as well as removing their noise for better model fitting. To give suggestions for future neural network-based approaches, the authors highlighted some critical points that have to be considered such as overfitting and class imbalance, and suggest choosing different network parameters or combining two or more of the presented approaches. One of the biggest challenges for cancer prediction modelers is deciding on the network architecture (i.e. the number of hidden layers and neurons), as there are currently no guidelines to follow to obtain high prediction accuracy. The authors discovered that there is no algorithm available to concretely determine an optimal number of hidden layers or nodes and found that many papers simply implemented a trial and error method to reduce loss in the model.<br />
<br />
==Critiques==<br />
<br />
While results indicate that the functionality of the neural network determines its general architecture, the decision on the number of hidden layers, neurons, hypermeters, and learning algorithms is made using trial-and-error techniques. Therefore improvements in this area of the model might need to be explored in order to obtain better results and in order to make more convincing statements.<br />
<br />
An issue that one must be mindful of is the underlying distribution of data. Cancer is an extremely complex genetic disease and the predictions would depend on so many variables, a number of which will not even be present in the dataset as they might have been collected. So there is a need for extensive validation when it comes to applying deep learning methods to cancer-related data.<br />
<br />
In the field of medical sciences and molecular biology, interpretability of results is imperative as often experts seek not just to solve the issue at hand but to understand the causal relationships. Having a high ROC value may not necessarily convince other experts on the validity of the finding because the underlying details of cancer symptoms have been abstracted in a complex neural network as a black box. However, the neural network clustering method suggested in this paper does offer a good compromise because it enables humans to visual low-level features but still gives experts the control on making various predictions using well-studied traditional techniques.<br />
<br />
With high dimensionality features, kernel SVM is another option for cancer prediction. Jiang et. al. developed a Hadamard Kernel for predicting breast cancer using gene expression data, and it utilizes the Kernel trick to avoid high computational efforts (link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5763304/). Compared against linear, quadratic, RBF and correlation kernels, Hadamard Kernel performs best with the highest averaged area under the ROC curve (AUC) value. It may be interesting to compare the performance and accuracy between the Hadamard Kernel and cancer prediction models with various number of hidden layers and neurons.<br />
<br />
Although the authors presented technical details about data processing, training approaches evaluation metric, and addressed many practical issues that can be considered for cancer prediction, no novel methods or models are proposed. It's more like a proof-of-concept about the feasibility of different models on cancer prediction.<br />
<br />
As the authors indicate neural networks would be a useful tool for cancer prediction models, the article is lacking an example for implementing neural networks to provide persuasive support for their arguments.<br />
<br />
The inheritance of cancer is complex and changeable. The predicted variables are therefore very complicated, so for the model of the learning data set, a more adequate training set is needed to learn. And multi-party verification of the learned model.<br />
<br />
The authors mentioned many different neural network models and compared them. It would be better if more details of a commonly applied model with relatively high accuracy could be given such as how the model is built. An article named Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression gives explanations of CNN in detail.<br />
<br />
The authors briefly discussed methods and algorithms being used in the presented paper in their summary. However, a very little amount of technical details were provided to the readers. The summary itself is lacking specific examples for the aforementioned algorithms, and datasets which were used in the original analysis were only introduced in one or two sentences. As a result, the summary and conclusion appear to be unconvincing to the readers.<br />
<br />
==Reference==<br />
[1] Daoud, M., & Mayo, M. (2019). A survey of neural network-based cancer prediction models from microarray data. Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, 97, 204–214.<br />
<br />
[2] Brier GW. 1950. Verification of forecasts expressed in terms of probabilities. Monthly Weather Review 78: 1–3<br />
<br />
[3] Harald Steck, Balaji Krishnapuram, Cary Dehing-oberije, Philippe Lambin, Vikas C. Raykar. On ranking in survival analysis: Bounds on the concordance index. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (2008), pp. 1209-1216<br />
<br />
[4] Google Developers. (2020 February 10). ''Classification: ROC Curve and AUC.'' Machine Learning Crash Course. https://developers.google.com/machine-learning/crash-course/classification/roc-and-auc<br />
<br />
[5] Mostavi, M., Chiu, YC., Huang, Y. et al. Convolutional neural network models for cancer type prediction based on gene expression. ''BMC Med Genomics'' '''13''', 44 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12920-020-0677-2</div>J632liu